Lynn Thowson

unit 4 evaluation!

2008-07-21T21:48:00.000-07:00

1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
I am most proud of my 2 quizzes 100% on both! And my last compendium it took me FOREVER!!!!!
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?
My lab project was not very impressive but I think I got all the desired information in it and my ethical issues essay was very short but again I made my point.
3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?
I worked really hard and I feel that I deserve a high b or low a

REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")
At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?
I felt most engaged learning about our effect on the earth. I feel obigated now to make less of a negative impact on the earth

At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?
Honestly I was not very interested in the evolution section. Its just not my cup o tea
What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?
Once again being able to look at other students blogs is very helpful.
What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?
none

What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)
I think it is surprising how much the activity in America has affected our earth and ow little we have done to fix the situation

ethical issue 4

2008-07-21T21:36:00.000-07:00

In the world today it is a common concern about the strain of humans on the earth’s resources. What is causing this strain? Is it the high growth rate in lower developed countries or is it the high consumption rate in the more developed countries? Both of these cause a strain on the earth’s natural resources but it seems that in the more developed countries, the consumption rate is out of control. In America today we consume more than any other country with China trailing right behind. It seems that the lifestyle that we have become accustomed to is one of extreme waste and overexploitation of resources. We in America will drive around just for pleasure, spend an incredible amount of money on coffee drinks and fast food, and spend millions of dollars on frivolous items and many other methods of waste. It seems to me that those people living in less developed countries, barely using any water, fossil fuels or energy pose less of a threat to the environment than those of us in America carelessly wasting irreplaceable natural resources.

2008-07-21T20:39:00.000-07:00

In this lab project I will discuss species that I come in contact with on a regular basis and the relationship that I have with them
1. Humans- homo sapiens this relationship is symbiotic and we are domesticated.

2. Dog- canis lupus familiaris the relationship is mutualistic because we both benefit from the relationship and they are domesticated

3. Cat- felis catus. The relationship is again mutualistic because we both benefit from the relationship and most kinds of cats are domesticated
4. Mosquito- part of the family culicidae. The relationship is predator/prey type because they seek out blood from prey. They are not domesticated
5. Snake- part of the reptile suborder serpents. The relationship is predator/prey because they seek out prey and we are also their predators. They are not domesticated
6. Cow- of the family bovidae and the subfamily bovinae. Our relationship is commensal because we use them for food. They are domesticated.

http://www.chewingthecud.org/Grilled_Steak.jpg
7. Horse- equus caballus. Our relationship is mutualistic as well as symbiotic. We provide them food and shelter in return for transportation and companionship. Some are domesticated
8. Moth- insects of the order Lepidoptera. The relationship is symbiotic. They are not domesticated
9. Spider- invertebrate animals. The relationship is predator/prey they are predators on smaller insects and we are their predators. They are not domesticated.
10. Chicken- gallus gallus domesticus. The relationship we have is commensal. They are domesticated.

http://www.signs-up.com/prod_images/Chicken_xing_thumb_640.jpg /Chicken_xing_thumb_640.jpg
11. Bacteria- unicellular organisms that appear in groups. The relationship is parasitic. Some strains of bacteria are domesticated.
12. Fish- aquatic vertebrates. The relationship is commensal and symbiotic. They are not domesticated.

http://www.fishingtalks.com/images/salmon.jpg
13. Beetle- group of insects in the order of cleoptera. The relationship is symbiotic because beetles contribute to our ecosystem. They are not domesticated
14. Grains- a group of seeds used for food. The relationship is commensal. The species is domesticated
15. Frog- amphibian in the order anura. The relationship is symbiotic. They are not domesticated.

http://www.azootoyou.com/files/Giant_pixie_frog_best_04.jpg
16. Lizard- reptiles in the order squamata. The relationship is sometimes symbiotic and sometimes mutualistic. They are not domesticated
17. Lettuce-lactuca sativa. The relationship we have with lettuce is commensal. The species is domesticated.
18. Mold-microscopic fungi. The relationship is parasitic. Some variations of the species are domesticated.
19. Bird- vertebrates in the class of aves. The relationship is symbiotic. Some species are domesticated.

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/10/images/061010-new-bird_big.jpg
20. Cricket- insect in the family gryllidae. Our relationship is symbiotic. Crickets play an important role in our ecosystem. They are not domesticated.
21. Butterfly- insect in the order Lepidoptera. The relationship is symbiotic. They are not domesticated.

http://twistedphysics.typepad.com/cocktail_party_physics/images/butterfly.jpg
22. Skunk- mammals in the family mephitidae. Our relationship is symbiotic. They are not domesticated.
23. Yeast- fungi the relationship is parasitic. Some strains are domesticated
24. Apple- malus domestica. The relationship is symbiotic. They are domesticated.
25. Ant- insect in the family formicidae. The relationship is symbiotic. They play an important role in the ecosystem. They are not domesticated
26. Bee-insects in the subfamily apoidea. The relationship is symbiotic. They are sometimes domesticated.

http://whyfiles.org/267bee_virus/images/bee.jpg
27. Turkey- bird in the genus meleagris. The relationship is commensal. They are domesticated
28. Ferret-mustela putorius furo. Te relationship is mutualistic. They are domesticated

http://www.freewebs.com/ferretwhisperer/White2020SaltPepper20Ferret.jpg
29. Goat- capra aegagrus hircus. The relationship is commensal. We rely on them for food production (milk)
30. Rose- flowering shrub of the genus rosa. The relationship is mutualistic. We enjoy them and we help them grow. They are domesticated.

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_G--MKSZpj_s/R7XtKUFcXKI/AAAAAAAAAFQ/LyJu2IBg3Ck/s400/mid_rose_drop%2Bcopy.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.recommendedreading.blacktechnicolor.com/2008_02_01_archive.html&h=320&w=400&sz=31&hl=en&start=3&tbnid=7at6RiuTIdOcrM:&tbnh=99&tbnw=124&prev=/images%3Fq%3Drose%26gbv%3D2%26hl%3Den

unit four lab 2

2008-07-21T14:00:00.001-07:00

1. My high fertility rate counry was Congo with a fertility fate of 5.70.

2. My low fertility rate country was Barbados with a fertility rate of 1.80

3. The pyramid shape of the high fertility rate country represents that a major portion of the population has the ability to have children and are doing so at a high rate.

4. The oval shape of the low fertility rate country means that not as many people are reproducing and the groups of people are more even, not too many more children than adults and vise versa.

5. A situation with a lot of older people might be expected to be

quieter

slower paced

responsible

more money

clean

less technology

less waste

lower crime rate

lots of traveling

more home based activities

a situation with a lot more young people could be expected to be

louder

fast paced

negligent

wasting money

technologically advanced

more wasteful

high crime rate

laziness

content with surroundings

messy

Compendium 8

2008-07-21T09:47:00.000-07:00

This review will cover
1. The origin of life
2. Biological evolution and adaptation to environments
3. Ancestry of humans
4. Evolution of hominids and humans
5. Ecosystems
6. The flow of energy
7. Biogeochemical cycles
8. The human population
9. Use of natural resources and pollution
10. Biodiversity

1. The basic principle of life is that all living things are made of cells. All cells come from a pre-existing cell. Some believe that this process began as a chemical evolution. Taking this further, they believe that over billions of years the earth was probably formed from dust particles and debris. The solar system came at a later time. At first the earth was very hot due to hot gasses from volcanoes.

http://aycu27.webshots.com/image/34426/2006029685720687489_rs.jpg

The earth then cooled because water that was first a gas then formed thick clouds causing rains over many years to become oceans. This early earth had sources of energy like volcanoes, meteorites, radioactive isotopes, lightning and UV radiation. The gasses may have then reacted with each other to form small organic compounds like nucleotides and amino acids. The small organic molecules may have joined to cause organic macromolecules. The following are two hypotheses about how this may have happened: the RNA first states that only the RNA was necessary to advance toward the first cell. The Protein first hypothesis states that amino acids collected in puddles and the sun’s intense heat initiated the formation of proteinoids. These proteinoids are then returned to water where they form microspheres (contain many of the properties of a cell but formed only of protein). Protocells are cells that can metabolize but cannot reproduce. Supporters of each hypothesis have their own conclusions about how the first true cell came into existence. RNA first supporters say that RNA specified protein synthesis which produced enzymes, one of these enzymes may have been one like reverse transcriptase used RNA to form DNA and then DNA replication happened as usual. Protein first supporters say that the protocell had some proteins that evolved the ability to synthesize DNA from nucleotides found in its surroundings. From there DNA could specify protein synthesis.
2. The first cells were probably prokaryotic cells which evolved into eukaryotic cells and from there formed fungi, plants and animals. The term biological evolution refers to the process of a species evolving over time. This means that all living things have a common chemistry and cellular structure. Another important aspect of biological evolution is adaptation (adjusting to better fit a specific environment). The theory of evolution was first thought of by 22 year old Charles Darwin in about 1831.

http://nayagam.files.wordpress.com/2006/02/397px-Charles_Darwin_by_G._Richmond.jpg

He used fossils as evidence for evolution because he believed they dated back to 10,000 to billions of years ago. Fossils are found in a wide variety from footprints to droppings to bones and impressions of plants. Much can be learned from the study of fossils.

http://www.ecotao.com/holism/hu6.jpg

Fossils are dated by the layer of stratum they are found in. The hard parts of organisms are what are preserved in fossils such as teeth and bones. Mineralization is the process by which these parts are preserved. Paleontology is the study of life in prehistoric times using evidence in fossils. The fossil record is the recorded history as seen through fossils, this record is the most conclusive proof that evolution has occurred. Transitional fossils are those that show characteristics of two different groups, therefore sowing who is related to whom. The theory of evolution is also supported by biogeographical evidence, which is the placement of plants and animals in different parts of the world. This supports the hypothesis that life forms evolved in a particular location and then spread out throughout the world. Anatomical evidence is anatomical similarities between organisms’ shows a common decent. Homologous structures are similar because they share a common ancestor. Analogous structures do not share the same ancestry but do serve the same function. Vestigial structures are features that are developed in some creatures but serve no purpose in other creatures. Biochemical evidence shows that almost all living organisms use the same basic biochemical molecules (DNA, ATP and enzymes) and some of these genes are shared from worms to humans. Natural selection is a mechanism for adaptation which has two critical elements and an adaptation is the result. The first element is variation- the physical variations between different members of a species. The second element is competition for limited resources. The members of a species with advantageous traits reproduce and others die off. This theory is also known as survival of the fittest.
3. Humans are classified by their evolutionary relatedness. Binomial names refer to the names that give the genus and species. Primates are placental mammals that have adapted to living in trees. Humans are in this classification of mammals. Prosimians include lemurs, tarsiers, and lorises and anthropoids include monkeys, apes and humans. Primates have mobile limbs and sometimes an opposable thumb and big toe, binocular vision, a large complex brain and a reduced reproduction rate. The genomes of humans and chimpanzees are 99% identical but that one percent difference accounts for the number of differences between chimpanzees and humans.
4. Our branch of the evolutionary tree is known as the hominid branch. The features of a hominid include walking on two feet, the shape of the face and the size of the brain. Human features evolved gradually and at an unequal rate. An incorrect assumption is that humans evolved from apes, we are actually more like distant cousins to the ape. Fossils have been found that seem to be from the time of the ape/human lineage split, these fossils are known as Sahelanthropus tchadensis. This fossil was found in central Africa. Other fossils of early hominids have been found in eastern Africa. It seems that the hominids decent began with australopithecines which evolved and diversified in Africa. Some of them were short and slender and known as gracile and others were more powerful and had larger upper bodies and were termed robust. One fossil in particular found in eastern Africa was found over 20 years ago by a team led by Donald Johanson. This fossil had a smaller brain, but walked bipedally.

http://www.scienceclarified.com/images/uesc_06_img0296.jpg

The term homo is given to a fossil of the brain size is large enough, the jaw and teeth resemble those of humans and the use of tools is evident. Early homo is termed Homo habilis. It had a large brain and cheek and teeth structures that indicate being omnivorous. They also made tools out of stone. The part of the brain that is associated with speech is enlarged, indicating that they could hunt cooperatively. Homo erectus fossils have been found in Africa, Asia, and Europe. There are different species associated with the name Homo erectus. Homo erectus in comparison to Homo habilis has a larger brain and a flatter face with a projecting nose. They were taller, stood erect and were very muscular. Homo erectus used fire and advanced tools. It is believed that Homo sapiens most likely evolved from Homo erectus in several different regions of the world including Asia, Africa and Europe. Neandertals were first discovered in Germany. The brain of the neandertal was larger than that of the Homo sapiens. They show signs of being culturally advanced such as building houses, using stone tools, controlling fire, and buried their dead with flowers and possibly had a religion. Cro-Magnons are designated as Homo sapiens. Their DNA is different from neandertal DNA and therefore it is believed that they did not interbreed. They made more advanced stone tools, possibly were the first to throw spears; they may have even had a language and lived in small groups and their culture included art. It is believed that human variations arose from adaptations to a particular environment some of these that we can see today are skin color, body shape, hair texture and shape of the lips.

http://www.scienceclarified.com/images/uesc_06_img0297.jpg
5. The term ecosystem is given to a place where organisms interact among themselves and with the physical and chemical environment. These interactions between organisms keep the ecosystem intact and therefore the biosphere. There are a few different classifications of ecosystems referred to by scientists; temperate forests, deserts, tropical grasslands, tropical rainforests, temperate grasslands, taiga and tundra are the major classifications of terrestrial ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems are composed of those that have fresh water and those that have salt water. There are two freshwater ecosystems, those with standing water (lakes and ponds) and those with running water (rivers and streams). Saltwater ecosystems include marshes which are where rivers meet the ocean and coral reefs are off the shore. Ecosystems include abiotic and biotic components (living and nonliving) and are categorized according to their food source. Autotrophs are producers that only require inorganic nutrients and an outside energy source for survival. Heterotrophs require organic nutrients for survival and are therefore the consumers of an ecosystem. Classifications of Heterotrophs are herbivores that eat only plants and algae, carnivores eat only other animals and insects, omnivores eat both plants and animals and detritus feeders eat decomposing particles of organic matter. A particular organism’s role in an ecosystem is known as its niche. All ecosystems are characterized by its energy flow and chemical cycling. Energy flow is the process of the producers of the ecosystem absorbing energy from the sun and chemical cycling is the producers taking inorganic nutrients from the environment. The producers then make organic nutrients for themselves and other populations of the ecosystem.

http://www.visitandlearn.co.uk/topicalfactfiles/images/ecosystems2.gif
6. The flow of energy is represented by a food web and there are different types of food webs such as a grazing food web and a detrital food web. A food chain is a diagram that shows a single path of energy flow. Within a food chain are different trophic levels (all the organisms that feed on a particular link in the chain) food chains are relatively short due to the loss of energy between the trophic levels. The loss of energy is very significant only about 10% of the energy available to one trophic level is available to the next level.

http://www.jenningsk12.net/WE/peimann/Science/FoodChains/food_chain.jpe
7. All organisms in an ecosystem require organic and inorganic nutrients. Chemicals circulating through the ecosystem create a biogeochemical cycle. These cycles can be gaseous or sedimentary. One of these cycles is the water cycle which begins with water evaporating from the ocean and net condensation occurs meaning that a gas is changed to a liquid. The water that has evaporated from the ocean condenses and then falls back to the earth as precipitation. Water can also be evaporated from the land and plants the water that is on the land is eventually returned to the sea by the process of runoff. Some precipitation does not runoff back into the ocean but seeps into the earth to a certain level. Aquifers are a layer of permeable rock, sand, or gravel through which ground water flows and they contain water that supplies wells and springs. Human activities can greatly affect the water cycle in three ways 1. Taking water from aquifers 2. Clear vegetation from the land and build roads which in turn prevent water from seeping into the ground 3. We add pollutants to water through sewage and chemicals we use. The carbon cycle is a biogeochemical cycle where the atmosphere serves as the exchange pool. On land plants take up carbon dioxide then the organisms respire releasing carbon into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. In an aquatic ecosystem carbon dioxide combines with water to produce bicarbonate ion. The bicarbonate in the water is in equilibrium with the carbon dioxide in the air. Dead and living organisms hold organic carbon and are reservoirs for the carbon cycle. Due to human activities more carbon dioxide is being released into the atmosphere than is being removed. This is unfortunately contributing to the global warming trend we are seeing. Another biogeochemical cycle is the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen makes up about 78% of the atmosphere. In the nitrogen cycle, nitrogen gas is converted to ammonium which plants can utilize. Plants use nitrates as a source of nitrogen. The process of producing nitrates during the nitrogen cycle is called nitrification, this process happens in different ways; Nitrogen gas is converted to nitrate in the atmosphere, ammonium is converted to nitrate by soil bacteria, nitrate-producing bacteria convert ammonium to nitrate, nitrate producing bacteria convert nitrite to nitrate, plants take up ammonia and nitrate and produce proteins and nucleic acids. Dentrification is the process of turning nitrate back to nitrogen gas. The phosphorous cycle is another biogeochemical cycle where phosphorous is trapped in the ocean and then released onto the land where plants use it, and then animals eat the plants and turn the phosphate into teeth, bones and shells, death and decomposition of the animals and their teeth and bones once again makes phosphate available to the producers.
8. The population of the world has now grown to about 7 billion people. The world is currently experiencing a time of exponential growth meaning that it is steadily increasing. About 78 million people are added to the world each year. The term growth rate refers to the difference between the amount of people born and the amount of people that die per year. The maximum growth rate under ideal conditions in the world is known as the biotic potential. The carrying capacity of the environment is called the carrying capacity. Two classifications of countries in the world today are the more developed countries (MDC’s) and the less developed countries (LDC’s). More developed countries have a lower population increase rate while in the LDC’s the population continues to rise steadily.

http://www.sustainablescale.org/images/uploaded/Population/World%20Population%20Growth%20to%202050.JPG
9. Humans have needs that are fulfilled by resources, resources can be classified into renewable, which can be replenished and non renewable, which are irreplaceable and limited in supply. One of the resources humans need is land, we need land to live on, farm on and for a variety of other buildings. Humans living on and using land for crops and other uses can have detrimental effects on the land making it difficult or impossible to use in the future. Water is a resource that should be available to all humans, but the overuse of freshwater for the irrigation of crops deems it almost impossible for water poor areas of the world to have adequate water. The use of dams and aquifers are two ways humans increase the freshwater supply, both of these definitely have adverse effects on the earth. The increase in the supply of food in the last 50 years has come along with these harmful practices; planting crops with few variations which will eventually deem the land unusable for future crops, use of fertilizers pesticides and herbicides which have negative effects on the earth and those that consume them, irrigation which wastes a copious amount of water and finally overuse of fuel for production of these foods. There are both renewable and non renewable energy sources non renewable energy resources are fossil fuels oil, natural gas and coal. The use of these fuels unfortunately contributes to global warming. Renewable energy sources are hydropower, geothermal, wind and solar energy which are all better for the environment than the fossil fuels. Minerals are those non renewable resources that can be extracted (mined) and then used by humans in a variety of ways.
10. There is variety to life on earth and this is known as biodiversity. Many factors are contributing to the loss of biodiversity in the form of extinction including loss of habitat, alien species, pollution, overexploitation, and disease. There are many benefits to maintaining biodiversity including medicinal value because many medicines come from living organisms. Agricultural value comes from maintaining a diverse group of crops in the world. Another important aspect of biodiversity is human consumption, keeping a consumable amount of animals and fish will greatly benefit the human population. There are indirect values of maintaining biodiversity as well these are waste disposal by means of decomposers breaking down dead organic matter for use by producers in an ecosystem. Provision of freshwater is another indirect value of maintaining biodiversity, many organisms need freshwater for survival and maintaining our supply of freshwater will be invaluable. The prevention of soil erosion, biogeochemical cycles, climate, and ecotourism will also benefit the biodiversity of the earth. In today’s word it is important to make the smallest ecological footprint possible and thereby maintaining a sustainable society. Especially in America we need to focus on saving our earth for future generations by consuming less water, energy, food, and other natural resources while creating as little waste as possible.

Lab Project Fetal Development

2008-07-17T11:51:00.000-07:00

In this lab I will discuss 11 events that I think are crucial to pregnancy and the developing baby and why I feel that these events are important.
1. Fertilization of the egg- This is the most important event because it is the beginning of the pregnancy journey.

http://www.scienceclarified.com/images/uesc_05_img0247.jpg

2. Implantation of the embryo into the uterus wall- this is very important because correct placement of the embryo can mean a successful pregnancy but incorrect placement of the embryo into the fallopian tube can result in a failed pregnancy. This begins one week after fertilization and ends about two weeks after fertilization

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://blogs.chron.com/realrehab/archives/pictures/Day%25206%2520Beginning%2520of%2520implantation.gif&imgrefurl=http://blogs.chron.com/realrehab/archives/2006/12/&h=156&w=194&sz=27&hl=en&start=108&tbnid=f_tg-JlMnosZxM:&tbnh=83&tbnw=103&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dhuman%2Bembryo%2Bimplantation%26start%3D90%26gbv%3D2%26ndsp%3D18%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN

3. Hormone levels increasing- The hormone levels in a pregnancy are very important for many reasons the hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) supports the pregnancy by ensuring production of progesterone until the placenta is fully formed. This is also the hormone that is detected on pregnancy tests. Progesterone is produced by the placenta and it functions to inhibit contracting of the uterus by inhibiting smooth muscle. This affect on smooth muscle also shows in other areas of smooth muscle in the woman’s body. Estrogen is also produced by the placenta and it is characterized by an increase in uterine blood flow and a woman’s increased emotional sensitivity. Pro-lactin is another hormone that allows for lactation postpartum. These hormone levels begin changing when the embryo implants and do not stop fluctuating until after the baby is born
4. Formation of what will become the amniotic cavity- significant because this is what will surround and protect the baby from activity by the mother and it begins at 7-12 days after fertilization

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://staff.um.edu.mt/acus1/IMPLANTATION_files/image008.jpg&imgrefurl=http://staff.um.edu.mt/acus1/IMPLANTATION.htm&h=379&w=492&sz=21&hl=en&start=6&tbnid=E7DyEt66eJ1GhM:&tbnh=100&tbnw=130&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dhuman%2Bembryo%2Bamniotic%2Bcavity%26gbv%3D2%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG

. Formation of future placenta and umbilical cord- important because this is what will nourish the baby for development and rid it of wastes. The umbilical cord will serve as a blood exchange route. This begins at about 13 days after fertilization
6. The beginning of gastrulation- significant because the cells migrate to areas to become tissue layers known as the primary germ layers and are called the ectoderm which becomes the skin, lining of oral cavity and the nervous system. The mesoderm becomes the skeleton, muscular system, dermis of skin, cardiovascular system, reproductive system and digestive system among others. The endoderm becomes the lining of the digestive and respiratory tract and other glands associated with these systems. This happens at 13-16 days after fertilization
7. The heart starts to beat- significant because it shows that this is a human being even at this early stage of development. Occurs at 23-25 days after fertilization

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.chanceandchoice.com/ChanceandChoice/38daysheart.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.chanceandchoice.com/ChanceandChoice/chapter4.html&h=417&w=550&sz=13&hl=en&start=2&tbnid=gBp25pwdAkVppM:&tbnh=101&tbnw=133&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dhuman%2Bembryo%2Bthe%2Bheart%26gbv%3D2%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG

8. Formation of future brain and spinal cord- both crucial to development and life of the baby. Begins at 17-19 days after fertilization
9. Limb bud formation- this is the beginning of the embryo looking more like a human being. Begins at 31-35 days after conception
10. The pituitary gland starts forming- significant because this gland will eventually send the message to the uterus to start contracting. Begins at 42-44 days
11. Formation of the gonads- significant because these will soon begin to show outward signs of the sex of the baby! Begins at 48-51 days

http://www.dhushara.com/paradoxhtm/biology/gonads2.jpg

There are so many important events in a pregnancy it is difficult to narrow it down to ten, I feel that the most crucial development happens in the first trimester so I kept my events narrowed down to those months.

compendium 7

2008-07-16T23:30:00.000-07:00

This review will cover
1. The male reproductive system
2. The female reproductive system
3. The female monthly cycle
4. Reproduction control
5. STD’s
6. Fertilization through embryonic development
7. Fetal development
8. Birth
9. Development after birth

1. Included in the male reproductive system are the testes, epididymides, vasa deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra, bulbourethral glands and the penis. Sperm are produced in the testes and continue maturation in the epididymis. Mature sperm leave the epididymis and are stored in the vas deferens. The vas deferens drain into the ejaculatory duct which enters into the urethra. As seminal fluid is passed through the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands, secretions are added to them and the liquid becomes what is known as semen that is excreted upon ejaculation. At the tip of the male penis is a swelling called the glans penis which at birth is covered by a layer of skin which is sometimes removed soon after birth. Nitric oxide is released during sexual arousal which allows for the release of cyclic guanosine monophosphate which allows for the erectile tissue to fill with blood thus becoming erect. In the time of an erection a sphincter cuts off the entrance from the bladder into the urethra so that no urine can enter. Semen enters the urethra after sexual arousal and contractions of the muscles in the penis push the semen out in spurts. Typically there is 3.5 ml of semen in one ejaculation and up to 400 million sperm in that 3.5 ml. the scrotum holds the testes a distance away from the body to allow for a lower temperature for the sperm to thrive in. if the temperature is too high, the sperm do not function properly. In the testes are seminiferous tubules which are the areas where sperm are produced. The production of sperm is done in the meiosis process which was discussed in an earlier chapter. A mature sperm is composed of three parts a head, middle piece and a tail. Movement of the tail is made possible by the energy producing mitochondria in the middle piece. In the head there are enzymes that are necessary to break through the egg during fertilization. Testosterone, the most important of the male sex hormones is secreted by the interstitial cells that lie between the seminiferous tubules. The hypothalamus regulates the secretion of the hormones that control production of sperm and testosterone. Testosterone brings about the changes in a mole during puberty such as broader shoulders, lower voice and hair on face, chest and back.

http://www.faqs.org/health/images/uchr_02_img0144.jpg

2. The female reproductive system includes the ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, and vagina along with various other organs. The ovaries are responsible for the production of eggs, estrogen and progesterone. The fallopian tubes are also known as the oviducts and they sweep the egg that has been expelled from the ovary into the tube. The egg moved down the tube toward the uterus. The uterus is the middle organ between the fallopian tubes and it ends with the cervix. The cervix opens into the vagina which is a canal for birth, allows for menstrual flow and is the sex organ in females. There are also external genitals on the female that are collectively known as the vulva. Upon sexual arousal some of the sexual organs become engorged with blood and lubrication seeps into the vagina.

http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=55703&rendTypeId=4

3. The ovarian cycle has 6 stages first the primary follicle which contains an oocyte begins producing estrogen, and then the secondary follicle containing an oocyte also produces estrogen and progesterone. Third the vesicular follicle develops followed by ovulation. The fifth stage is when the oocyte has left the follicle; the follicle becomes a corpus luteum, which if unfertilized, will disintegrate. Estrogen is responsible for secondary sex characteristics in females such as fat distribution and hair growth. Later in a woman’s life the follicles slowly stop producing estrogen and progesterone ceasing the menstrual cycle, this change is known as menopause. These two hormones are also responsible for a series of events known as the uterine cycle. This cycle is divided by days. Days 1-5 the levels of the hormones cause blood vessels to rupture causing blood to seep from the vagina in a menstrual period. Days 6-13 there is a high production level of estrogen causes the endometrium to thicken. On day 14 ovulation typically occurs. days 15-28 production of progesterone increases and causes the endometrium of the uterus to increase in size and secrete a thick mucus preparing for implantation. If fertilization does not happen, the cycles begin again.
4. Regulation of the amount of children a person or a couple has is done in a variety of ways including the family planning method which has an 80% effectiveness rate, women’ s hormonal birth control which has between a 98% -99% effectiveness rate. The male condom has an 89% effectiveness rate. A diaphragm has a 90% effectiveness rate when used with a spermacide. IUD’s have a 99% effectiveness rate and contraceptive injections also have a 99% effectiveness rate. There is also a method of birth control used after intercourse to prevent fertilization, this is known as the morning after pill and has about an 80% effectiveness rate. Of all the birth control methods abstinence is obviously the safest and most effective in not only birth control but also STD protection.
5. Sexually transmitted diseases are caused by various factors including viruses, bacteria, protists, fungi and animals. STD’s caused by viruses include HIV which causes AIDS, genital warts, genital herpes, ad hepatitis. Of these STD’s there are only effective treatments for HIV/AIDS and genital herpes. Unfortunately though these are only treatments for the symptoms and do not cure the diseases. STD’s caused by bacteria are treatable and curable by use of antibiotics. These STD’s include Chlamydia, Gonorrhea, and syphilis. STD rates in America ire rising steadily and it is estimated that more than half of all people will have an STD at one time. (http://www.ashastd.org/learn/learn_statistics.cfm)
6. Sperm have long tails which allow them to swim toward the egg, once at the egg the head of the sperm releases a special enzyme that allows it to penetrate the egg then the sperm nucleus enters the egg and unites with the egg pronucleus and this is called fertilization. At this point the fertilized egg is known as a zygote. The zygote becomes an embryo and then a fetus. Lying outside the embryo and fetus are the extrambryonic membranes which are the chorion provides the fetus with nutrients and oxygen, the allantois protrudes from the embryo and collects the small amount of urine excreted form the fetal kidneys and will eventually form the bladder. The yolk sac is the first site of blood cell formation. The amnion contains fluid to cushion and protect the fetus during development. The gestation period is the 280 day period of time from the day of the start of the last menstruation to the day the baby is expected to be born. Pre-embryonic development is the first week of development beginning with fertilization of the egg followed by repeated division of cells while traveling down the oviduct to the uterus. A compact group of cells known as the morula becomes the blastocyst that arranges itself on a manner of an inner grouping of cells and an outer layer of cells. All the inner cells have the ability to develop into any type of tissue and will collectively become the embryo. Embryonic development begins in the second week and continues through the second month. During this time the embryo implants into the wall of the uterus and secretes the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin which is the hormone that is detected in pregnancy tests. In this week the inner cells become the embryonic disk and the yolk sac and the amniotic cavity form. During the third week of development the nervous system and the heart begin to develop. In the fourth and fifth weeks the umbilical cord develops and arms and legs develop from the limb buds. In the fifth week the head enlarges and the eyes ears and nose become visible. In the sixth through eighth weeks the form of the embryo begins to look more like a human being, the neck region develops and the nervous system is working enough to respond to stimuli. During the seventh week of development the gonads form and at this stage of development the male and female gonads look alike.

http://www.sciencehelpdesk.com/img/bg3_4/EmbryonicDevelopmentComplete1.gif
7. The umbilical cord is the path of the fetal blood between the fetus and the placenta so that blood between the mother and child is rarely exchanged. During the third month the gender of the fetus can be distinguished, the head is large in proportion to the rest of the body. Also during the third and fourth months the cartilage begins to be replaced by bone and the baby’s heartbeat is easily distinguishable. In months five through seven the mother can feel the baby move and the baby’s eyelids are fully open. At the end of the seventh month the baby is about 12 inches long and weighs about 3 pounds. In the eighth through ninth months development finishes and the baby’s lungs further develop and he/she gains weight needed to survive outside the womb.

8. There are three stages of labor, in stage one contractions pull the cervix up toward the baby’s head making the cervix virtually disappear, the water breaks and when the cervix is dialated completely the second stage begins. In stage two, contractions are about 1-2 minutes apart and last for 1 minute, the urge to push is becoming greater as the baby’s head lowers into the vagina. Once the head is delivered the rest of the body follows easily. In the third stage the placenta is delivered and the labor is complete.
9. Growth continues after birth in a sense all the way until death. As a person ages their body begins to show the signs such as the loss of skin elasticity, loss of movement in the joints, the cardiovascular system also suffers some signs of aging. Bone loss is also common later in life and many individuals suffer from osteoporosis. Tooth decay is also common in older individuals, but it is possible to prevent this with regular brushing and cleanings. It is inevitable that all humans will age and pass away, however it is possible to create a smooth transition by eating a healthy diet, exercising regularly and generally taking care of your body.

http://www.solarnavigator.net/animal_kingdom/animal_images/Human_infant_newborn_baby.jpg

http://barrydean.files.wordpress.com/2007/11/elderly-couple.jpg

ethical Issue 3 exercise

2008-07-12T13:52:00.001-07:00

In this essay I will discuss the ever growing issue of exercise, or lack thereof, and its effect on Americans. In a discussion about exercise it is estimated that seven out of ten Americans will say that they don’t get enough exercise. Why is this such a big concern? It will come as no surprise that exercise is one of the many keys to a longer, healthier, happier life. So why is it that Americans have such a difficult time getting enough exercise? One belief is that our culture aids in a sedentary lifestyle. When I think of American culture what comes to mind are things that require little or no physical effort; watching sports on TV, driving fast cars, Barbeques, boating, holidays that focus on food, and more. All of these activities, although fun, require nothing from us physically and sadly this is what is bringing our culture to this obese state. It is estimated that 58 million Americans are obese and this is partly due to lack of exercise. In America today it is typical to go to work and sit for eight hours or more and then come home to a pre cooked meal and sit in front of the TV for the rest of the evening before going to bed. This type of inactivity could be one of the reasons that America has been named the fattest nation on earth! Living in a country that is so dependent on convenience makes it difficult to create an active lifestyle for a family or an individual, so how do we fix this problem. Many cities are making efforts towards a more active life by creating programs for their residents to become more active. Also businesses support programs of this type to get their employees to be more active. I will be honest and say that I do not get enough exercise, but this is no one’s choice but my own. I take full responsibility for my lack of activity and to be honest I feel that that everyone has to take ownership of their body and this would be the first step to creating a more active country. The reformation of our nation will begin one person at a time individuals and families joining together and becoming more active together would definitely be a positive start to renewing our society. I believe that parents need to be involved in their children’s lives enough to ensure proper nutrition as well as exercise of some sort. Taking children on walks and playing with them outdoors are easy and fun family activities that keep families not only active but also bring them closer emotionally. As with proper nutrition, active lifestyles are taught in the home from an early age and most likely will continue throughout a persons life.

Lab project 3 human limb

2008-07-10T23:20:00.000-07:00

The purpose of this project was to build a model of a working human limb. I chose an elbow joint with the corresponding bones, muscles, and ligaments. I began with dog bones one large and two small to represent the humerus, radius and ulna. I then used fusion modeling clay to represent both the joints as well as the ligaments. I then placed twizzlers pull-and-peel side by side to represent the long muscle fibers. I showed the limb in a straight position and then in a contracted position.

This is a picture of a cell body with an axon which carries action potentials to muscle fibers and makes them carry out specific functions.

This is a pictire of a sarcomere in its relaxed state.

This is a picture of a sarcomere in a contracted position.

This shows an axon at resting potential

this shows an axon when it is being charged with sodium

this shows an axon ending the action potential and polarization returning to resting state.

Unit three lab two

2008-07-08T14:33:00.000-07:00

The purpose of this lab was to thes the effects of different factors have on our ability to have proper muscular function.
In the first exercise I was able to feel the effects of muscle contraction in my jawline and bicep, as well as see the effects of muscle contraction in my arm and fist with the use of a piece of paper.
in the second step of the exercise I first made a fist as many times as I could in 20 seconds which was 45. I then dipped my hand into water with ice for what felt like an hour but was only about 45 seconds because it hurt SO bad! After that in 20 seconds I could only make 20 fists.
The third portion of the experament was to see how many times I could make a fist in 20 seconds and repeat 10 times quickly. Results;
1. 63
2. 63
3. 62
4. 59
5. 59
6. 57
7. 56
8. 55
9. 52
10. 53

My results did not vary as much as I thought they would, but I do work out on a regular basis so they are pretty conditioned.
1. the changes I noticed in my muscles were both the prime mover growing and I think I could see the antagonist in my forarm (flexor Carpi) lengthening. Also I notices how quickly I could feel the muscle getting tired.
2. The cold water had a huge effect on my muscle, even while my hand was still submerged in the water, I could barely move it! and after I took it out it took a few minutes to get back to normal.
3. When my hand muscles were fatigued it made it much more difficult to squeeze the ball, it was still possible, but it was slower and at the end it hurt a lot and took a lot of effort to keep going.
4. I think that the reason for the fatigue is that after a short period of time all the stored ATP has been used up and the muscle is working to create more, but during the experament the muscle did not have enough energy to complete the tasks.

compendium 6

2008-07-08T13:50:00.000-07:00

This review will cover
1. The human skeletal system
2. Bone structure and cartilage
3. Bone growth and repair
4. The axial skeleton
5. The appendicular skeleton
6. Movement of the joints
7. Skeletal muscle structure and function
8. Muscle disorders and homeostasis

1. There are 206 bones that make up the human skeletal system. This system serves many functions: support, protection, production of red blood cells, storage of fat and minerals, allows for flexible movement.

2. There are two basic types of bones compact bone which is very organized and spongy bone which looks less organized but serves a very important function. Cartilage is a flexible matter that works in conjunction with many bones and joints. There are three types of cartilage that are arranged differently to serve different purposes. Hyaline cartilage is firm and contains a good amount of collagen, it is found in the nose, ribs, and the end of long bones. Fibrocartilage contains more collagen than hyaline cartilage and is found in the nee and vertebrae. Elastic cartilage is flexible and contains more elastin than collagen, it is found in the ear and the epiglottis.
3. At about six weeks after conception the skeletal system begins to develop, showing how crucial it is to the human form. Bone growth in humans can continue until 25 years of age, but remodeling and repair can happen at any time. The three bone cells involved in the growth, remodel and repair of bones are osteoblasts, which form the bones, osteocytes maintain the bones, and osteoclasts break down the bones whenever necessary. Ossification is the term used to describe the formation of bones. Intramembranous bones are flat bones such as the ones in the skull. Endochondral ossification forms most of the rest of the bones in the skeletal system. Many factors affect the growth of bones and proper growth of bones is vital to a properly functioning skeletal system. These factors include proper hormones including the hormone that is produced in the kidneys from vitamin D. Growth hormone and thyroid hormone are two other hormones fundamental to the growth and formation of bones. Bones are constantly being remodeled; up to 18% of bones in adults are remodeled in a one year period of time! Repair of bones is necessary after an injury to a bone occurs. Injuries to bones are classified as follows; complete fractures are when the bone is broken through, incomplete fractures are when the bone is not completely separated. Simple fractures do not puncture the skin and compound fractures puncture the skin. If the ends of the broken bones are wedged into each other is known as impacted and if the bone twists and becomes ragged, it is known as a spiral fracture.
4. The axial skeleton contains 80 bones and consists of the skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and the rib cage. The skull includes the cranium, which has eight bones and protects the brain. The facial bones include the mandible, the maxillae, the zygomatic bones and the bones that make up the nasal cavity.

The hyoid bone is located near the larynx and is suspended by ligaments and muscles; it aids in swallowing and is an anchor for the tongue. The vertebral column is composed of 33 vertebrae and they are classified according to location. There are 7 vertebrae that make up the cervical vertebrae lie in the neck. The 12 thoracic vertebrae lie below the cervical vertebrae and ribs attach to them. Below the thoracic vertebrae are the five sacral vertebrae, and directly below them is the tailbone or coccyx. Between the vertebrae are small disks that protect the discs from grinding against each other and act as a cushion. Also in the axial skeleton is the rib cage which protects the heart and other vital internal organs. Ribs are connected to the thoracic vertebrae and occur in pairs. The true ribs are connected to the sternum by costal cartilage and the three pairs below that are false ribs and are connected by a common cartilage to the sternum. The floating ribs are the last two pairs of ribs and are not connected to the sternum at all. The sternum is the set of three bones that is positioned in the midline of the body. Its main purpose is to protect the heart.
5. The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the hip (pelvic) and shoulder (Pectoral) regions and the bones that are attached to them. The body is split into two divisions’ right and left and the regions are classified the same way. These photographs show the included bones in both regions

6. Joints are the meeting place of bones and are classified as fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial. Fibrous joints are generally not able to move. Cartilaginous joints are typically joined by hyaline cartilage and are somewhat moveable. Synovial joints are easily moveable because they are filled with a synovial fluid which acts as a lubricant to allow for movement. INSERT KNEE JOINT Synovial joint movement means that when a muscle contracts, two bones move in relation to each other the most common types of movements are flexion when the angle of the joint decreases and its opposite extension when the angle increases. Abduction when the body part moves away from the midline and adduction when the body part moves closer to the midline. Rotation means that the body part is rotating around its own axis and circumduction is when the body part moves so that a cone shape is made.
7. Skeletal muscle is made up of fibers that are tubular, multinucleated, and striated. Skeletal muscles line the skeleton and movement of the muscle is voluntary, meaning that we can control its movement. Skeletal muscles are multifunctional and those functions include support of the body, movement of bones, maintenance of body temperature, assists in movement of cardiovascular and lymphatic vessels, and protection of internal organs. Skeletal muscles occur in pairs that work opposite of each other but at the same time in union with one another. The muscle in a particular group that does most of the work is known as the prime mover and the muscle that works opposite of it is the antagonist. When a muscle contracts it shortens in length and a particular muscle can only pull, not push. Skeletal muscles are named according to their size, shape, location, direction of the fibers, where it is attached, number of attachments, and the action that it fulfils. Muscle fibers are cells but some of the parts are named differently, the cytoplasm is the sarcoplasm, the membrane is the sarcloemma, and the endoplasmic reticulum is the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The muscle fibers also have t tubules that come in contact with the sarcoplasmic reticulum where calcium is stored. Microfibrils are enclosed in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and run the length of the muscle fiber. Within a microfibril is what is known as a sarcomere. Sarcomeres are composed of thick filaments that contain myosin and thin filaments that contain actin. When muscles contract the actin slides toward each other past the myosin and shorten the grouping that is altogether the sarcomere. This is known as sliding filament. Due to the fact that axons have several branches, they can stimulate the movement of many muscle fibers at once. A motor unit is the grouping of a nerve fiber and all the muscle fibers it innervates. In addition to cellular respiration and fermentation as methods of ATP production, muscles have the Creatine phosphate pathway as well. This is a quick easy anaerobic method for producing ATP. Muscles have for methods for acquiring the fuel needed for energy, glycogen and fat are stored in the muscles and blood glucose and plasma fatty acids are stored in the blood.

8. Muscular disorders range from those that are not very serious to those that are life threatening. Spasms, cramps tics and strains are non-life threatening muscular conditions that happen to many people on a regular basis. More serious disorders such as myalgia, fibromyalgia, muscular dystrophy, myasthenia gravis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis( Lou Gehrig’s disease) are more serious disorders of the muscles and can be life threatening. Homeostasis is maintained by both the muscular and skeletal systems working together to allow movement in many areas of our body that without that movement, we would be unable to continue living as we do. These systems together also help protect our body from serious injury. The skeletal system produces calcium and red blood cells which are vital to sustain life. Also the muscles on the body help regulate a constant body temperature, this aids in homeostasis by allowing the outside temperature to drop and rise a considerable amount without detrimental effects to the body.

leech Lab Project

2008-07-06T19:26:00.000-07:00

1. the electrode is measuring the potential of the membrane or the action potential.

2. leeches are used because they have a simple makeup, they are easier to dissect and although they are more simple, their stucture is similar to ours.

3. the difference between a sensory and a motor neuron is that sensory neurons take nerve impulses to the central nervous system after stimulation of a sensory receptor. Motor neurons conduct nerve impulses away from the nervous system initiating effectors.

4. I think that leeches probably experience pain due to the fact that they contain a nervous system and a brain. Its sad to think about that though because we use them so extensively for research. I'm glad this was a simulation!

5. I liked this lab because I was able to keep on testing nerves until I felt like I had a good idea of what it would be like in real life. also because you could inject the nerve with dye to see what it would look like by itself and magnified, it gave a good visual.

6. I found it slighty confusing at first but the good thing about it was that there were links to a dictionary and other ways to navigate through the page to help you understand what you were doing.

compendium 5

2008-07-06T18:30:00.000-07:00

This review will cover
1. The basic parts and functions of the nervous system including; The central nervous system and The peripheral nervous system, how nervous impulses are sent throughout the body and how the reflex arc works
2. A basic overview of our senses
a. Taste and smell
b. Vision
c. Hearing
d. Equilibrium

1. The nervous system is actually composed of two systems that work in conjunction with one another. The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the spinal cord and the brain. The CNS takes in sensory information and then in some way decides what action will be taken. Both brain and spinal cord are heavily protected by bone and membrane. The spinal cord contains nerves going to and from it that act as a means of communication between the brain and the peripheral nerves that extend from the cord. Nerve impulses transmit messages within the nervous system. When axons (portions of neurons that conduct nerve impulses) are inactive, meaning that they are not conducting an impulse, it is known as the resting potential. At this state the membrane potential of an axon is about -65 mV. When a nerve impulse occurs a rapid change in the polarity across the axonal membrane it is known as the action potential. When this action potential occurs two gated channels are involved. First the sodium gates open and let sodium into the axon and this action changes the polarity to +40 mV. Then the potassium gates open and potassium exits the axon returning the axon to its resting potential. Some axons (mainly long ones) are covered in a lipid based substance known as myelin, these myelinated axons are capable of sending messages much faster than they would be otherwise because the nerve impulse is able to jump from node to node very quickly. The nervous system can be seriously dysfunctional when demyelination occurs and causes what are known as leukodystrophies as well as MS. All axons branch out with many fine endings at the end of which are small swellings known as axon terminals. These axon terminals are in very close proximity to the dendrite or cell body of another neuron. This close proximity is called the synapse. At these synapses transmission of nerve impulses occurs in this manner; nerve impulses reach the axon terminal, calcium ions enter the terminal and stimulate synaptic vesicles to merge with the sending membrane, and neurotransmitter molecules diffuse into the receiving membrane. The brain is referred to in four sections, cerebrum, diencephalon, cerebellum, and the brain stem. The cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain and is split into halves and then even further into four lobes which have very specific functions. The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres and is responsible processing sensation, voluntary movement, and all the thought processes of consciousness. The primary motor area begins the process of voluntary commands to skeletal muscles. Sensory information such as taste, sight and hearing are sent to the primary somatosensory area of the brain. Integration occurs at the association areas of the brain. Also in the cerebrum are processing centers, where information is received, actions are planned, and critical thinking is performed and appropriate behaviors are formulated. The remainder of the cerebrum is composed of white matter (myelinated neurons). The diencephalon is composed of the hypothalamus and the thalamus. The thalamus receives all sensory information except smell. The information is integrated here and sent to the appropriate place. The thalamus is also involved in memory and emotion. The hypothalamus is involved in homeostasis by regulating hunger, thirst, sleep etc. The cerebellum portion of the brain is where sensory information from the eyes, ears, joints and muscles is received and posture and balance are maintained. The brain stem contains the midbrain, pons and the medulla oblongata. The midbrain relays information from the cerebrum and spinal cord or cerebellum. The pons contains axons bridging between the cerebellum and the rest of the Central nervous system. The medulla oblongata ensures homeostasis by regulating the heartbeat, breathing and blood pressure. The peripheral nervous system contains the nerves, cranial nerves extend from the brain and spinal nerves extend from the spinal cord. Cranial nerves come in 12 pairs in humans some pairs contain sensory nerves, some motor nerves and some a mix of both. Spinal nerves also come in pairs emerging from either side of the spinal cord and contain both sensory and motor fibers. The PNS is in two divisions, the somatic system which contains the nerves for the skin skeletal muscles and tendons. The somatic system takes information from the external sensory receptors to the CNS and motor commands from the CNS to skeletal muscles. Reflexes are when response to a stimulus is non voluntary. The reflex arc is when a reflex only involves the spinal cord. A stimulus happens, nerve impulses move toward the spinal cord, sensory neurons enter the cord and pass signals to interneurons. Interneurons then synapse with motor neurons, the impulse travels along the motor fibers to an effector, which initiates a response. The autonomic system regulates cardiac and smooth muscles as well as glands. The sympathetic division of the autonomic system helps in fight or flight situations by accelerating the heartbeat and dilating the bronchi. The parasympathetic division of the autonomic system promotes a state of relaxation by slowing down the heartbeat and initiates the digestion of food. A wide variety of natural and synthetic compounds affect the nervous system, these are called drugs and they are widely used in our society. The abuse of drugs is a growing problem and their effects can range from the lowering of inhibitions to death.
2. Certain types of stimuli are detected by sensory receptors, either exteroreceptors, which detect stimuli from outside the body, or, interoreceptors, which receive stimuli from within the body. There are four classifications of sensory receptors 1. Chemoreceptors respond to chemical substances close to the body. Taste and smell utilize chemoreceptors as well as some other internal organs. Pain receptors are chemoreceptors that respond to chemicals released by a damaged tissue. 2. Response to light is carried out by photoreceptors in our eyes. 3. Mechanoreceptors are stimulated by pressure. 3. Mechanoreceptors are in our ears as well as pressure receptors in our skin that are sensitive to light or strong pressures. 3. Thermoreceptors are present in the hypothalamus and the skin and respond to changes in temperature. The conscious perception of stimuli is sensation. All sensory receptors initiate nerve impulses, but depending on what part of the brain receives the impulse the sensation can be different. Within the muscles, joints, tendons, some internal organs and skin are three different types of general sensory receptors. Proprioceptors are a sub category of mechanoreceptors and are involved in balance and posture. Cuataneous receptors lie in the dermis of the skin and are involved in making the skin sensitive to touch, pressure, pain, and temperature. Pain receptors in the internal organs are sensitive to chemicals released by damaged tissue. The senses of taste and smell are chemical senses due to the fact that they are responsive to molecules in the food we eat and the air. Adult humans have 3000 taste buds that occur mainly in the mouth on the tongue. Taste can be categorized one of primary ways; sweet, sour, bitter, or salty. There are areas on the tongue that are sensitive to different tastes. Taste is a different sensation that actually works in correlation with smell. About 80-90% of what we know as taste is actually smell, which explains why it made it easier for me to choke down food I hated as a child by plugging my nose! The sense of smell is also connected with memory and emotion, which is why certain smells bring back specific memories. Vision is a very complex sense and involves both the eyes and the brain. The eyeball has three layers, the sclera, the choroid, and the retina. The outer layer, sclera, contains the cornea, which is the window of the eye. The middle layer, choroid, contains the iris and the pupil which allow light in to the eye. The choroid also contains the lens which divides the eye into two compartments. The third layer, the retina contains rod and cone cells. Rod cells respond to light and cone cells help with seeing color. Hearing is another sense that is very complex in the sense that the ear performs dual functions, hearing and balance. The ear is split up into 3 portions outer, middle and inner ear. The outer ear contains the pinna which is the external flap that we see, and the auditory canal which has fine hairs and glands that secrete earwax. The middle ear begins at the eardrum and contains three tiny bones called the ossicles, as well as the auditory canal and then it ends with a bony wall that has two openings covered by membranes called the oval and round window. The inner ear is filled with liquid and has 3 areas, the semicircular canal, vestibule and the cochlea. Sound waves enter the ear and vibrate the eardrum the waves are then passed from the inner part of the eardrum through the incus to the stapes. The stapes then strikes the membrane of the oval window and the waves are passed to the fluid within the cochlea. Different parts of the cochlea are responsive to different pitches of sound. After long periods of time of being exposed to loud noise, hearing loss can occur. Also in the ear as part of the cochlea there are three semicircular canals that are involved in the sense of balance, or equilibrium. The canals are formed in such a way that they cover all dimensions of space. The base of the canals is called the ampulla where tiny hairs are submerged in a gelatinous material known as cupula. When the head moves, the cupula is displaced and the feeling of unbalance results when a movement such as spinning occurs for a prolonged period of time.

Unit two self and unit evaluation

2008-06-26T22:14:00.000-07:00

self
1. I feel that I did well on my first compendium, the two quizzes, and the ethical issues essay.
2. I think my second compendium could have used more time, and I dont feel that my lab project was as in depth as it could have been unfortunately.
3. I think my overall grade should be an A for this unit because I feel that I did everything the same in these projects, but improved on the things that were mentioned in my review for unit one.
4. In the next unit I am going to try to focus on condensing the material for the compendiums, so that I can spend more time on the lab project.

unit
1. The most interesting part of this unit for me was definetly learning about nutrition, how much the foods we eat impact us on a day to day basis and long term.
2. Looking back through the chapters I can't think of a time when I was really confused or distanced. This unit was easily understood for me, still a lot of work though!
3. I felt that the ning network was really helpful, i was having problems and i looked on the main page and someone else was having the same problem so i had my question answered without even having to ask!
4. the most confusing thing for me was just about my blood pressure! nothing anyone else did confused me. I will be following up on that in the next few days.
5. I was very intrigued when learning about the heart, I had no idea how it was designed and how it worked, it was really interesting and surprising for me.

2008-06-26T15:28:00.000-07:00

Major Lab project 2
Exercise Physiology
In this lab I will be measuring various rates doing various activities. I feel that understanding what effect certain activities have on the functions of our body. Knowing this will help us exercise better and generally take care of ourselves better. When we do cardiovascular exercise, it not only works our muscles but also works out our heart. Regular exercise prevents cardiovascular disease as well as hypertension. In this lab I will measure my pulse, respiration and blood pressure at rest, after vacuuming for five minutes, after walking around the block and after running in place for three minutes.
I measured my resting rates five different times and came up with a mean for each rate
Pulse 69
Respiration 10
Blood pressure 110/64
My guess is that after vacuuming for five minutes my pulse will increase slightly, less than 5 beats per minute
My respiration will increase slightly less than 3 breaths per minute
My blood pressure will have little or no change
After walking around my block my pulse will increase some but not a great deal less than 10 beats per minute
My respiration will increase by less than 10 breaths per minute
My blood pressure will increase slightly
After running for three minutes my pulse will increase by more than ten beats per minute
My respiration will increase by more than ten breaths per minute
My blood pressure will increase a noticeable amount.

Vacuuming
My pulse increased way more than I thought it would! I thought just a small change would happen but in reality it increased by 10! My respiration increased by three so I was right on there, and my blood pressure had no change in the systolic pressure but the diastolic pressure increased by 3. The effects were surprising to me because I thought this was a very low intensity task.
Walking around the block
My pulse increased to 93 beats per minute which is an increase of 24 from my resting rate. Once again I was way off. My respiration was 15 and I thought it would be around that much. My blood pressure had little change, systolic stayed at 110 and diastolic increased by four from the resting rate and was at 68.
Running for three minutes
My pulse increased to 93 which was not surprising, I had thought it would have a large increase. My respiration was at 25 breaths per minute which honestly was a little higher than I thought it would be. And my systolic dropped by two to 108 and the diastolic was at 67. I thought that my blood pressure would go up during exercise but it didn’t.

I feel that I completed the activities thoroughly, but the only problem I see is that I took my own blood pressure the old fashioned way as you can see in the picture. I feel that this might have had an effect on my results. My blood pressure should have increased during exercise and it didn’t. I am not quite sure why it didn’t, it’s a possibility that it wasn’t intense enough for a change, but also taking your own blood pressure is a little tricky and time consuming and by the time I got it all set up, the pressure could have dropped back to normal.
I now understand the importance of exercise AND relaxation. It is important that we work our muscles and our hearts out, but also that we give it a rest! Exercise is vital to getting the blood circulation through our body in order to nourish all those muscles. I feel that this was a very beneficial activity and I can honestly say that I will try to fit more exercise into my life, no matter what it is walking running or just moving around the house!

Fatal Food

2008-06-26T15:07:00.000-07:00

America today is dependent on convenience, it seems as though our lives revolve around convenient products. We have fast food, delivery services for almost anything you can imagine, pre-packaged dishwashing detergent, cell phones, PDA’s, and so many more products that were designed to help us out. But it seems that all these pre packaged conveniences come at a price. Cancer rates are on the rise, possibly due to the excessive use of cell phones? Cardiovascular disease, obesity, diabetes type 2 and other health problems are on the rise as well which, most likely, are due to the new found eating habits of Americans. In this essay I will focus on families, how families are eating an America and what it is doing to our youth. It shocks me when I look around at families and how parents are so blind to the fact that what they feed their children is actually killing them slowly. I see parents at the grocery store buying sodas, sugared cereals, potato chips, macaroni and cheese, and other sugar and fat filled foods for their children. Meanwhile the kids sit home on the couch watching TV or playing video games. Childhood obesity is on the rise in America, it is estimated that between 5 and 25% of children and teenagers are obese! What is wrong with this picture? These foods that target children are making their way into the home and making our children fat! So how do we as a community begin to remedy this horrible situation? I feel that it begins in our home. I myself do not have any children so I can’t say how easy it would be, but my sister is my hero in regards to how to feed children. When her first son was born, doctors discovered that he had asthma and would need to be on steroids and other medications possibly for the rest of his life. It was torturous to watch this innocent child be treated with these steroids that were inhaled through a mask that we had to hold on his face while he screamed and squirmed around trying to get away from it. My sister made a life changing decision during that time, she believed that if she could figure out what flared up his asthma, feed him healthy, nutritious foods, and take him to a naturopathic doctor to help minimize the asthma, he would be a much healthier, happier child. So the journey toward a healthier lifestyle began, she started shopping at natural foods stores, and figuring out what effect some foods had on his health, she discovered that he was allergic to wheat and dairy products which flared his asthma and kept him away from those foods, and he responded very well. To make a long story shorter, my sisters oldest is now seven years old, off of medications, and very rarely shows any symptoms of asthma, and her two younger children are five and three and are all very healthy and even at those young ages, they themselves make wise food decisions! All of this because she made the decision to feed her children for their long term well-being. My sister lives in town and runs an organic produce co-op which has been growing the past couple of years and she has been able to share her story with many other families who follow in her footsteps. I feel that if we can all make the decision that we want to live longer healthier lives, invest slightly more time into making nutritious meals for our families, we will benefit immensely. Our children will be of healthy weight, make wise choices on their own, and
possibly impact those around them.

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www.motivatehealthyhabits.com/images3/mhh_hea...

Online Lab "A Day of Food"

2008-06-23T20:11:00.000-07:00

How healthy of a diet do you think this is? Why?
I feel that I make healthy food decisions, I rarely eat fast food or eat out in general. This days eating was a lot of protein because I'm not gonna lie, I am trying to lose a few pounds, and for me going low carb works. I know that this day did not reflect it but typically I have at least one salad per day, either fruit or green salad.
What would you change about this days eating?
I would definitely add more vegetables and fruit. I find that when I eat veggies, and fruit, the more I want them, I just need to make sure I have them every day.
Do you find this kind of nutritional tracking helpful?
I think it is awesome to have websites like that free to the public to help them see what is in the foods they eat and how many calories they should be having. I think I will actually use this website a lot! I had no idea that it was available.

compendium 4

2008-06-23T19:09:00.000-07:00

In this review I will discuss
1. The digestive system including
A. Mouth, pharynx, and esophagus.
B. Stomach, small intestine, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder
C. The large intestine and defecation
2. Food and nutrition
A. Diabetes
B. Eating habits of Americans
C. Healthy eating habits

1. A. Ingestion refers to the process of putting food into our mouths thus beginning its passage through our body. Digestion is the process the body takes on to break the food down into useable nutrients and pass it through the rest of the GI tract. Mechanical digestion begins the process mainly in the mouth and stomach. Chemical digestion starts in the mouth with saliva and is complete when the food reaches the small intestine. Absorption refers to the molecules being produced by digestion cross the GI tract wall and are passed to the blood. Elimination is when all useable nutrients have been extracted from the food and the remains are expelled from the body by defecation. The mouth is the first part of the digestive tract. Food enters the mouth and chewing begins, mechanically separating the food and saliva begins to chemically break down the food. When food is swallowed it travels through the pharynx to the esophagus. In the esophagus, muscle contractions push the food (bolus) down into the stomach. These muscle contractions are known as peristalsis.
B. The basic functions of the stomach are to store food, begin digestion of protein, and control the amount of broken down food (chyme) that enters the small intestine. The only thing that the stomach absorbs is alcohol due to its fat solubility. Rugae are deep folds inside the stomach that, when the stomach is full, disappear. Gastric juice is produced in the gastric glands that stem from the mucosa in the stomach. Gastric juice helps in the digestion of protein. Chyme is the food broken down into a thick liquid that leaves the stomach in small squirts into the small intestine little by little. The small intestine completes the digestion process. The pancreas produces and secretes enzymes needed to digest fats, carbohydrates and proteins. As well as producing these enzymes, the pancreas also produces and secretes insulin, which aids in keeping the blood sugar levels normal. In the wall of the small intestine a great deal of absorption of nutrients takes place. The wall absorbs sugars, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol. The liver is the second of the accessory organs and it receives blood from the GI tract. The liver detoxifies the blood, while taking essential vitamins out of it and storing them for later use. The liver also regulates the amount of cholesterol in the blood by producing bile. Bile is then stored in the gallbladder.
C. The large intestine includes the cecum, colon, rectum, and the anal canal. The cecum is a small pouch directly below the entrance of the small intestine to the large intestine. The colon has three parts interconnected that lead to the rectum, which in turn leads to the anus and this is where defecation occurs.

eatwellgetwell.files.wordpress.com/2006/05/di...

2. A. Again nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine, this as an extremely important function in homeostasis. When too much sugar is consumed, sometimes diabetes type 2 can occur. Diabetes type 2 happens when the body has a hard time absorbing the sugars that are consumed because after a period of time of consuming too much sugar the body may become insulin resistant meaning that the cells in the body are no longer sensitive to insulin and do not allow the sugar in, Or, with insulin deficiency the pancreas is not producing enough insulin. Therefore the sugar that should have been absorbed by the blood is not and stays in the bloodstream which can lead to many health complications such as heart disease, blindness, nerve damage and kidney damage.
B. In America today we are reliant on convenience. Foods come pre-packaged for every occasion. Fast food is a multi-billion dollar industry that lures Americans from childhood. And being the busy Americans that we are, we eat it out of the palm of the food industry’s hand, literally! The problem with these pre packaged conveniences is that they are typically loaded with fat, sugar and processed food products while containing no real nutritional value. What do these foods REALLY do to our bodies? Increased cancer rates, increased obesity, increased diabetes, heart complications, and lack of energy, maybe some of these problems are due to the convenient food products we consume on a daily basis. I feel that the most incredible display of what the eating habits of Americans are really doing to our people is the documentary “Super Size Me.” After watching this film and what one month of the fast food lifestyle did to this otherwise healthy man, I was convinced not to eat fast food ever again!
C. So, how do we fix this mess? It starts in the home; getting back to home cooked meals is the start, beginning to use non processed foods for those meals, and using as many organic products as we can, and include a wide variety of foods to ensure all nutrients are included. It is probably close to impossible to live in America and avoid processed or pre packaged foods entirely, but doing so will not only ensure longer healthier lives, but also a stronger economy. Purchasing fresh fruits and vegetables will not only benefit our local economy, but also ensure that those fruits and vegetables have not been pumped with preservatives to be able to travel over 1000 miles to get to us. There is so much to be said about the way we eat, where we get our food and what it does to our economy, but it is safe to say that getting back to the basics of food will improve our mind, body and soul.

www.topnews.in/health/files/fast-food.jpg

2008-06-21T12:20:00.000-07:00

1. State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.
The risk of hypertension in men may increase after the age of 40.
2. Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.
Men at 50 have a higher blood pressure than men at 20.
3. How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow? What data will you record?
I will test the blood pressure of different age groups of men record the average of the data, and input it into a graph to test my hypothesis.
4. Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.
It seems that in men age affected blood pressure and at a more mature age all five risk increasing factors affected BP. In women BP tended to be lower than in men, but also increased with age. Risk increasing factors were abused less by women as a group than men.
5. Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?
The experiment supported my hypothesis because the average blood pressure of men at 50 years of age was indeed higher than that of men at 20 years of age. It seems that older men typically have a higher blood pressure than younger men, and that older women have a higher blood pressure than younger women. It also seems that men typically have higher blood pressure than women.
6. During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?
The patients with out of normal range BP had a variety of reasons. In young men it seemed to be a history of hypertension, lack of exercise, and being overweight. In older men it seemed to be all factors History of hypertension, alcohol consumption, high salt diet, lack of exercise and overweight.
7. List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?
Lack of exercise
Overweight
History of hypertension
High salt diet
Alcohol consumption
I feel that the most closely associated risk factor would be a history of hypertension.
8. What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?
Obesity has a high impact on hypertension. The heart has to work so much harder to pump blood through more area. An obese person will likely have a lack of exercise and as well as a high fat/salt diet. These factors will greatly increase their risk.

compendium 3

2008-06-20T23:13:00.000-07:00

In this review I will be covering the following topics
1. The cardiovascular system including
a. Blood vessels
b. The heart
c. The features of the cardiovascular system
d. Cardiovascular disorders
2. Blood including
a. The transport of oxygen
b. Blood’s contribution to the body’s defense system
c. Blood clotting
3. The lymphatic system and our immunity including
a. Pathogens
b. Features of the lymphatic system
c. Nonspecific and specific defenses our bodies have against pathogens
d. Acquired immunity
4. AIDS
a. Origin of the HIV virus
b. Stages of the HIV infection

1. A. Two components make up the cardiovascular system, the heart, and the blood vessels. The blood vessels are what the blood in our bodies’ flows through. The circulation of blood has one main purpose, and that is to service the cells. Vessels can be compared to a city street system that blood moves along and at some stops it gives up wastes (kidneys) At one stop it receives oxygen needed for survival (lungs) at the intestines, blood receives nutrients it needs. There are three types of blood vessels in the body. Arteries are made up of three layers in order to support them because blood enters them under pressure. Arteries begin the path of blood through the body. Large arteries branch off into arterioles that are smaller versions of arteries. The arterioles branch off into capillaries. Capillary beds from an exchange route for blood from arterioles to venules, which are small veins that drain the blood from the capillaries and then group together to form a vein. In the veins blood moves back toward the heart. In many cases veins have valves which allow the blood to move toward the heart and prevent backward flow.
B. The heart is a muscular organ about the size of a fist with the other hand clasped around it. It is made up of two parts myocardium is the inner but major portion of the heart consisting mostly of cardiac muscle tissue. Surrounding the heart is the pericardium which is a thick sac that supports and protects the heart. Internally the heart has four chambers. The two upper chambers are the atria (left and right). And two lower chambers, ventricles (left and right). The valves of the heart keep the blood flowing in the correct direction. Blood travels through the body in the following manner: oxygen poor blood enters the right atrium; it then travels to the right ventricle where it is sent through the pulmonary semilunar valve directly into the pulmonary trunk. From the pulmonary trunk it is divided and travels through pulmonary veins to the lungs to be oxygenated. From there the oxygen rich blood enter four pulmonary veins that dispense blood into the left atrium. Then the blood is sent through an atrioventricular valve to the left ventricle where it is sent through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta and then the body. A heart beat is what is known as a cardiac cycle. The chambers of the heart contract and relax. The contraction is the working phase, called systole. The relaxation of the chambers is the resting phase, called diastole. The body has internal and external controls of the heartbeat. In the heart a unique cardiac muscle tissue consisting of both muscular and nervous tissue called nodal tissue makes up the sinoatrial and the atrioventrivular nodes. The SA node sends a signal to the heat to stimulate contraction, it is therefore known as the pacemaker. The external control is located in the medulla oblongata regulates the heartbeat sympathetically and parasympathetically.

homepages.wmich.edu/~p3morefi/heart.jpeg

C. The left ventricle and sends blood to the aorta. The pressure of the blood decreases as the blood moves through the arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins. The pressure of blood is lowest in the vena cava, and highest in the aorta. Homeostasis is dependent on the beating of the heart. The heart beat forces the blood to move throughout the body, and when the blood is moving in the body, it exchanges items with various tissues. The return of blood to the heart is reliant on the skeletal muscle pump, muscles contract and push blood toward the heart and valves prevent it from flowing backwards. The respiratory pump which is the expansion of the chest upon inhalation which stimulates blood movement. There are two pathways of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary circuit circulates blood through the lungs where it releases carbon dioxide and receives oxygen. The systematic circuit serves the needs of all the body’s other tissues. The pathway of blood in the systematic circuit always begins with the left ventricle moving into the aorta. The heart is nourished by the coronary arteries, not by the blood that flows through it. A system that moves blood from capillary bed to capillary bed is called a portal system and will always lie between capillary beds.
D. Cardiovascular disorders can lead to strokes and sometimes aneurysms. One type of cardiovascular disorder is hypertension which is the blood moving through the arteries at a higher pressure than normal. Simply put it is high blood pressure and it can lead to heart attack, stroke and kidney failure. To lower the risk of hypertension it is a good idea to eat a diet low in fat and cholesterol. Heart failure is another cardiovascular disorder when the heart does not pump blood as it should. Medical technology has allowed many people to live after surviving a heart attack but this leads to heart failure in many cases because the heart is damaged.

2. A. The blood in our bodies serves many purposes; it delivers nutrients from the digestive tract and oxygen form the lungs to other tissues throughout the body. It then exchanges them with carbon dioxide and waste. Some organs give the blood hormones that signal cellular metabolism. Our bodies blood also protects us against the invasion of pathogens. Some blood cells are able to phagocytize pathogens essentially destroying them. Other cells produce antibodies to destroy pathogens. Blood also has the capability to clot when needed in order to prevent blood loss in event of an injury. Blood is a tissue and therefore is made up of cells and cell fragments both of these collectively called the formed elements are suspended in plasma and thereby classified as a liquid tissue. A main component in blood is the red blood cells. Red blood cells replace a nucleus with hemoglobin. The heme part of the hemoglobin takes up oxygen in the lungs and lets it go in the tissues. Red blood cells have the main function of transporting oxygen throughout the body. When oxygen binds to the hemoglobin it takes on a different more full shape and is known as deoxyhemoglobin and when it releases the oxygen it is known as deoxyhemoglobin. The method in which red blood cells transport the oxygen is as follows, blood picks up the carbon dioxide from the tissues and a small amount (about 7%) dissolves in the plasma. Hemoglobin transports about 25% of the carbon dioxide and the rest is transported in the plasma. When the blood arrives at the lungs, the carbon dioxide is released entirely. Red blood cells are produced in the bone marrow and because red blood cells only live about 120 days, bone marrow must keep up with the need for red blood cells. If an inadequate amount of oxygen is being transported to the cells, the kidneys release a hormone to stimulate for the production of more red blood cells.
B. Blood has an important role involving immunity. White blood cells are produced in the bone marrow deriving from stem cells. The colony-stimulating factor (CSF) stimulates the production of white blood cells which are classified into two groups, granular leukocytes and agranular leukocytes. Granular leukocytes include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. The majority of the granular leukocytes are neutrophils which typically the first white blood cells to respond to a bacteria. The death of neutrophils in large numbers can result in pus. The function of the eosinophils has not been discovered, but it seems clear that the number of them increases with a parasitic worm infection and in allergic reactions. Basophils have a dark blue color and function in the connective tissues releasing histamine in the event of an allergic reaction. Agranular leukocytes are classified into lymphocytes which are the second most abundant type of white blood cells and are responsible in targeting specific pathogens and their toxins. There are two types of leukocytes b-cells which produce antibodies and t-cells directly destroy the pathogens. Monocytes are the largest of the white blood cells, live in the tissues and phagocytize pathogens, waste and old cells.
C. Fragments of large cells form what is known as platelets that assist in the blood clotting process. When a blood vessel is punctured platelets gather to form a stopper in the wound. The platelets then release an activator that begins a series of reactions. This reaction forms fibrin which trap red blood cells.

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After repair of the vessel plasmin is released that destroys the fibrin and the liquid texture of plasma is restored. Some people have an insufficient number of platelets which can cause bruising, nosebleeds, bleeding in the mouth and rash. This condition is called thrombocytopenia. A thrombus is a lodged blood clot formation due to plaque in the blood. When the clot dislodges and moves it is known as a thromboembolism which can cause a heart attack. A lack of the clotting factor in the blood is known as hemophilia which can lead to major internal bleeding with the slightest bump.

3. A. Bacteria are widespread in our environment, they cover almost everything we encounter and in many situations they are vital to our survival. However, bacteria and viruses also known as pathogens cause many human infectious diseases. The human body has three ways of defending itself against these pathogens 1. Skin and mucous membranes create barriers to entry. 2. When an invasion does occur white blood cells send out first responders to attack the pathogens. 3. When a specific force is necessary the body sends special defense to target the pathogen and kill it. Bacteria are single celled prokaryotic cells that lack a nucleus. The most frequent shapes are bacillus bacteria which have a rod shape. Coccus has a spherical shape and spirillum have a curved shape to them. Binary fission is the method by which bacteria reproduce. It is an extremely rapid reproduction process due to the lack of a nucleus and bacteria can literally double in number in as little as 12 minutes. Bacteria cause strep throat, tuberculosis, botulism, food poisoning, gonorrhea, and syphilis. Viruses are extremely troublesome because they can stay alive outside of a host, but they thrive inside a host. Viruses cause diseases such as colds, flu, chicken pox, AIDS, genital warts and genital herpes. Viruses are much smaller than bacteria and yet they carry the genetic material to reproduce which, surprisingly, is not necessarily DNA, it can be simply RNA. Viruses gain entry to a cell and take it over. Degenerative diseases of the nervous system are caused by prions which have a protein base. One of these diseases is mad cow disease which changes the shape of proteins in the brain.
B. the lymphatic system works in conjunction with the cardiovascular system and has four main functions. 1. Capillaries absorb excess tissue fluid and return it to the bloodstream. 2. In the small intestines, capillaries absorb fats and transport them to the bloodstream. 3. The lymphatic system produces, maintains, and distributes lymphocytes. 4. The lymphatic system also helps protect the body from pathogens. The lymphatic system is made up of lymphatic vessels that create a one way system of capillaries, vessels and ducts. There are two ducts in the lymphatic system the thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct. Also included in the lymphatic system are the lymphatic organs which are the primary red bone marrow and thymus gland and the secondary the lymph nodes and spleen. Red bone marrow produces blood cells. The thymus is bi-functional; it produces hormones that aid in the maturation of t-lymphocytes. The thymus also houses t-lymphocytes while they mature.
C. The human body has many different defenses to pathogens. Nonspecific defenses are barriers to entry which include mucus and skin, chemical barriers (secretion of bacteria containing oils), and resident bacteria in the mouth, intestines, and other areas of the body. Another nonspecific defense is the inflammatory response which is the second line of defense against pathogens. There are four signs that indicate inflammatory response: redness, heat, swelling, and pain. Specific defenses are the body’s response to antigens (foreign molecules). The specific defense relies on the action of b cells and t cells which search out specific antigens and respond to them appropriately. B cells have receptors on them that bind with a specific antigen and then produces clones of itself. Some of these copies make memory cells through which long term immunity is possible. After the infection passes the cells die off. T cells also have receptors on them but in order to recognize antigens t cells must have them presented by an antigen-presenting cell. The antigen presenting cell breaks apart the pathogen and presents it to an MHC protein or HLA. This process makes it possible for t cells to recognize and destroy specific antigens but leave other normal cells unaffected.
D. advances in medicine have allowed us to create immunity, which is known as acquired immunity. Acquired immunity is of two types active and passive. Active immunity is typically injected into the body in the form of vaccines. Active immunity is injected into a person when the person is well to prevent a future disease. Passive immunity is when a person is given antibodies that have been prepared to help them combat a disease. Passive immunity is typically given when a person has been accidentally exposed to an infectious disease.

4. A. It is believed that the beginning of HIV was around the late 1950’s in Africa and spread to the United States soon after that. The virus has been found in the green monkey of West Africa as well as chimpanzees of West-Central Africa. It is a possibility that the virus spread to humans who consumed the meat of these animals. It is possible that AIDS came to the US as early as the 1950’s, but the first case that was documented was that of a young boy who died in 1969 with skin lesions that are now known to be a type of AIDS cancer. AIDS was misdiagnosed as leukemia in the 1960’s as a cause of death but it seems now that many of those cases were because of AIDS. The naming of AIDS was in 1982 and it took about ten years after that to discover that HIV was the cause of AIDS. AIDS is seen in every country throughout the world, but is most common in Africa. In Africa about 20 % of the adult population is affected. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the main cause of death in those ages 15-44 is AIDS. It is estimated that in 2007 33.2 million people were living with the HIV/AIDS virus and 2.1 million people died from the virus. AIDS is now known as a worldwide epidemic, and its numbers are rising every day.
B. HIV occurs in three stages Acute Phase, Chronic Phase and AIDS. In the acute phase of HIV infection the helper T-cells in the body have been infected by the virus and are now called CD4 cells. A person in this stage of the virus is sometimes non-symptomatic but is highly infectious. The immune system in an acute phase person will still function relatively normally. Some people in this stage of infection will have flu like symptoms, but may otherwise be symptom free for years. In the chronic phase of disease the CD4 cell count is dramatically lower and the person will begin showing signs of a weakened immune system, yeast infections of the mouth or vagina, diarrhea, sores, shingles, fever and more. The final phase is being diagnosed with AIDS. CD4 t cell count falls below 200 cells per mm3 or the person has been diagnosed win one or more of the following AIDS defining illnesses; pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia, mycobacterium tuberculosis, toxoplasmic encephalitis, Kaposi’s sarcoma or invasive cervical cancer. Once any of these diseases occurs in an AIDS patient, death is soon to follow. www.stanford.edu/.../2005gongishmail/hiv2.jpg

Self and Unit Evaluation

2008-06-13T23:45:00.000-07:00

Self
1. I am most proud of my creation of a cell and the depiction of mitosis. I am also proud of my second compendium, I feel that it was thorough and I can look back on it later on and refresh my memory.
2. I could have used some improvement on my ethical issues essay. I will be managing my time better in the next unit in order to have more time to spend on the next one. I also could have used some improvement on my first compendium, although I spent quite a bit of time on it, it did not include all that it should have
3. I honestly feel that my overall grade should be a B. I have learned a tremendous amount in this unit and I will retain that information for a long time.
4. In this next unit I intend on managing my time better and also focusing more on the requirements for A level work and striving for that grade!

Unit

1. The most engaging portion of this unit for me was the section on cancer, I learned so much about cancer types, diagnosis and treatments.
2. I felt most distanced during the section on DNA and RNA relationships and functions. I will be reading over those sections again hopefully to achieve a better understanding!
3. I found it affirming to be able to look at other students blogs in order to ensure that I was on the right path.
4. I honestly can't think of anything puzzling that anyone else did.
5. The most surprising thing for me was the Pro-organic stance the authors of the book seem to have. I choose to eat mostly organic foods, non GM fruits and vegetables and as little preservatives as I can and it is nice to study a book in which the authors seem to have the same opinion.

ethical Issue 1

2008-06-13T23:44:00.000-07:00

Ethical Issue: recombinant DNA Technology
In today’s world there are many issues that can cause great confusion, cell phones, although they are extremely convenient, are they potentially harmful? Prescription medications, they make us feel better, they must be healthy right? In this essay I will focus on the differing viewpoints of genetically modified foods.
Farmers have always had a difficult time keeping their crops healthy with insects constantly eating at them. Therefore insecticides were manufactured to rid the plants of these insects. It was later discovered how harmful those insecticides could be if ingested. So now that there is DNA technology, scientists are able to modify plants to actually resist the insecticide. They are also able to modify the plants to grow larger, require less fresh water etc. Another advantage to genetically modified foods is that they can be mass produced much less expensively than non modified foods. These advances in technology make our lives so much more convenient, simple and cheap.
Although there are many conveniences of modifying foods to produce more, quicker, cheaper, some believe that there are dangers in this type of modification. There are significant changes within the food, therefore potentially causing a reaction to the change when consumed. Although these reactions may not have an immediate effect, they will possibly be seen later on. Another scary discovery is that in a study rats were fed genetically modified tomatoes and died shortly thereafter. It is safe to say that there are many pros and cons to genetically modified foods, the question is do the pros outweigh the cons or the other way around.
The fact is that there have not been enough tests done on the long term effects of humans consuming genetically modified food to determine the outcome. It seems as though the tests that have been done show that consumption of these foods have negative effects on the body. This is shown in the tests that were done on rats consuming GM tomatoes. The rats were tube fed the tomatoes and quickly showed signs of internal deterioration.
These genetic modifications may make life more convenient, but in the end we all have to make a choice and take a stand for what is best for the human race.

compendium 2

2008-06-13T22:17:00.000-07:00

Compendium 2
Chapters 18,21, 19 and 20 and power point presentation
In this review I will be covering the cell cycle, including interphase and cell division. I will also discuss mitosis and meiosis and their similarities and differences. I will touch on the inheritance of chromosomes from our parents and the effects of any changes in those chromosomes. I will also touch on the structures of DNA and RNA and how DNA replication is an integral part of mitosis. I will talk about some of the scientific findings in the studies of genetics and the technology that has been developed for the study of DNA. In this brief I will also touch on the wide topic of cancer, the formation and growth and types of cancer cells, and some of the causes of these cancer cells. And finally we will discuss the genes for specific traits, or genotype, and their physical characteristics, or Phenotypes. We will define the terms homozygous dominant, homozygous recessive and heterozygous recessive.
In the study of genetics we must study in depth the cells chromosomes and their effects on our bodies. All humans have 23 chromosomes (46 chromosomes in total). Only one of these pairs of chromosomes affects the sex of an individual. Scientists have developed a method for viewing all the chromosomes an individual has. The depiction of these chromosomes is called a karyotype. Karyotypes are achieved during the process of cell division when chromosomes are most compact and are highly visible. Cell division is the second part of what is called the cell cycle. Cell division comes after interphase. Most of the cells time is spent in interphase. The organelles carry on their typical functions and the cell readies itself to divide. About 90% of the cells time is spent in interphase. There are three phases of interphase G1 stage is when the cell doubles its organelles in preparation for division. The S stage is when DNA replication occurs, so that when the cell divides there will be like copies of DNA in both cells. G2 stage synthesizes the proteins necessary for the cell to divide. After the interphase is complete the cell division begins. The first phase of cell division is mitosis. In mitosis there are four stages.
1. Prophase of mitosis is characterized by the formation of the spindle fibers which we will discuss soon, the nucleolus has vanished and the duplicated chromosomes have become visible.
2. The metaphase of cell division can be distinguished by the spindle fibers attaching to the chromatids and the chromatids will line up at the center of the cell in preparation to be pulled apart.
3. Anaphase in cell division is when the identical chromatids are pulled apart by the shortening of the attached spindle fibers and each pole of the cell achieves the same chromosomes.
4. In the telophase the nucleoli begins to form and the cells membrane pinches together in the center and the cells are almost divided
After these steps are complete cytokinesis occurs and all the cells internal organelles are divided the cleavage furrow forms and the cells membrane pinches together and separates. Mitosis is a constant occurrence in our bodies, it is the reason we grow from a zygote to an adult and also the way in which we are able to heal after injuries and surgeries. The cell cycle control system is what stimulates the cell to divide at the appropriate times

In the process of meiosis cells divide a bit differently than mitosis. In meiosis there are two phases meiosis I and meiosis II. In meiosis I DNA replication has already occurred and the pairs of chromosomes line up at the equator in preparation for division. When this cell separates the daughter cells will take one member of each pair of chromosomes and will therefore have the haploid number of chromosomes. In meiosis II the four daughter cells are produced with the haploid number of chromosomes. The diploid (two of each type of chromosome are in the nucleus) amount of chromosomes is achieved again when fertilization occurs. Meiosis is the process for the division of cells for sexual reproduction. Some of the similarities and differences between mitosis and meiosis are that the DNA replication occurs prior to division in both scenarios but in mitosis only one cell division occurs whereas in meiosis has two. The main difference between the two is that meiosis is division of the sex cells and mitosis occurs in the rest of the body.
Normally when a zygote is formed by fertilization it then carries 22 sets of autochromosomes and 1 set of sex chromosomes. Occasionally though a person can be born with too many or too few of these chromosomes most likely due to nondisjunction (failure of the chromosomes to separate during meiosis I). This can result in Down syndrome, having three copies of chromosome 21 and turner syndrome having only one sex chromosome. Another chromosomal mutation is the seemingly inconsequential change in the structure of the chromosome. This can happen by deletion, the end of a chromosome breaks off or by duplication where a segment of a chromosome appears in the sequence more than one time. Two other forms of this type of mutation are inversion meaning that a segment of the chromosome has turned around 180 degrees, or by translocation in which a small piece of one chromosome switches places with a small piece from the other chromosome. These mutations can result in Williams syndrome and cri du chat syndrome.
DNA is seen in the cell as what is called a double helix. It looks similar to a ladder that is twisted. DNA is what stores genetic information in the cell. The supports or backbone of the DNA is comprised of phosphate sugar molecules and the rungs are formed of hydrogen bonded bases. These bases are adenine thymine base pairs and guanine cytosine base pairs. DNA replicates when an enzyme specifically for this process breaks the hydrogen bond or unzips the pairs and new strands of DNA come in to bond with the old strand to form new DNA molecules. Therefore each double helix has one new strand and one old strand. DNA replicates only in preparation for mitosis. RNA is a single stranded nucleotide that serves as a helper to DNA. There are three types of RNA, Ribosomal RNA is produced in the nucleus and joins with proteins and exits the nucleus and is used in protein synthesis. Messenger RNA is also formed in the nucleus and it carries messages necessary for protein synthesis. Transfer RNA transfers amino acids to the ribosomes thus forming a protein.
In the intense study of genes, or genomics, scientists have been able to clone cells. They have also been able to produce recombinant DNA, DNA comprised from two or more donors. This has been used in genetic engineering which is the purposeful modification of organisms genes. Genetic engineering has had a profound impact on our world today; it has made the production of artificial insulin and human growth hormone possible. It also has made its impact in the farming community with the presence of plants that are resistant to insecticides and/ or herbicides. It may also be possible through genetic engineering to water crops with salt water and have them thrive. Although genetic engineering may bring conveniences to our community there is much controversy on whether or not it is safe for us. I personally do not think that it is healthy to eat genetically modified foods.

In the study of cancer or oncology doctors and scientists have been able to discover how cancer is formed, causes of cancer, the different types of cancer as well as different treatments for it. In the formation of cancer one cell mutates giving it an abnormally large nucleus and the ability to divide an unlimited amount of times among other traits. Cancer cells divide multiple times forming a tumor, tumors can be benign meaning that they are enclosed in a capsule or they can be malignant in which the possibilities are virtually endless. Malignant tumors invade the underlying tissues and even have the possibility to sprout new formations in distant tissues. There are four different types of cancers
1. Carcinomas are cancers of the epithelial tissues such as skin, breast, lung and prostate to name a few
2. Sarcomas are cancers of the muscle or connective tissue like bone
3. Leukemias are cancers of the blood
4. Lymphomas are cancers of the lymphatic tissue such as the lymph nodes and the tonsils.
Cancers can be caused by hereditary inheritances and also by the environment. Environmental carcinogens include radiation, as seen in the effects of nuclear activity, organic chemicals such as tobacco, pesticides and asbestos, and also can be caused by viruses. We can greatly increase our chances of not getting cancer by staying away from cigarette smoke and other chemicals and making wise dietary choices such as organically grown fruits and vegetables and staying away from processed foods. It is a good idea to get checked for the common types of cancer regularly but also be aware of our bodies and follow up with physicians about any abnormal changes we have.
In chapter 20 the patterns of genetic inheritance are discussed in detail. Alleles are pairs of genes that occupy a specific position on a specific chromosome. Alleles are classified into dominant alleles, which are assigned uppercase letters, while lowercase letters are assigned to recessive alleles. Alleles occur in pairs because one half is contributed by the mother and the other half by the father. When two dominant alleles appear in a chromosome, it is given the name homozygous dominant. When one dominant and one recessive allele appear in a chromosome it is known as homozygous recessive. When two recessive alleles appear it is called heterozygous. The physical appearance of these genotypes is a person’s phenotype. One of the methods used to discover all possibilities in a cross where both parents are heterozygous is known as a Punnett square. We did some practice with this in our fly lab. Crosses get a little trickier when they are two trait crosses. The punnett square can also be very useful in discovering the possibility of a child inheriting a genetic disorder. Some of the more common genetic disorders we learned about were Tay-Sachs disease which is an autosomal recessive disorder meaning that both parents are carriers of the gene, but do not show any symptoms.
These four chapters and the power point presentation had a huge amount of information; I now have a solid base understanding of cell division, both mitosis and meiosis, the structure and functions of both DNA and RNA. I have gained more knowledge of genetic engineering; I was unaware that insulin was a genetically engineered product! The chapter I found the most interesting was chapter 19, the chapter on cancer. As I stated before I am in this class to become an RN and I hope to specialize in pediatric oncology, so this chapter held a wealth of information for me.

Lab Project: Build a Cell

2008-06-12T18:38:00.000-07:00

Post lab write-up
Lab 1 create a cell
This is a basic model of a cell that shows many of the components of a cell and another model that represents mitosis (cell division)
The products I chose to use were:
1. A foam half circle I chose this because I believe it represents the selective permeability of a cell membrane. The cell membrane in a functioning cell is what keeps the organelles inside the cell and also protects it from the outside environment. The process by which the cell lets organelles out of the cell and certain things in, is known as selective permeability.
2. Vanilla Pudding Forms the cytoplasm; I used pudding because it seemed to me like the semi-fluid description of cytoplasm in the book. The function of the cytoplasm is to hold the organelles in place.
3. Nucleus The nuclear envelope, nucleus and nucleolus were all formed out of model magic because I felt that as important as the nucleus is in the cell, I wanted to have a clear depiction of it. The nucleus is where DNA is stored in the cell.
4. Endoplasmic Reticulum I formed the rough endoplasmic reticulum out of a pipe cleaner, due to the fact that there are ribosomes lining the outside of it. The function of the rough ER is to perform protein synthesis. The smooth Endoplasmic reticulum is a continuum of the rough ER it is not studded with ribosomes.
5. Golgi apparatus for this I used white and brown modeling clay shaped in circles to show the “stack of pancakes” design. The function of the Golgi apparatus in the cell is to modify the proteins and lipids that are received from the ER to make them useful in other portions of the cell.
6. Lysosomes and vesicles for these two I used mini M&M’s to show the shape. The function of a lysosome in the cell is to digest macromolecules to make it possible for them to pass through the cell membrane. A vesicle stores a substance and transports it to the membrane of a cell for release.
7. Mitochondria For the mitochondria I used red hots cut in half to show the inside of the organelle. The function of the mitochondrion is cellular respiration.
8. Cilia and Flagella for the cilia and flagella I used modeling clay rolled into thin hair like structures. The functions of cilia and flagella are mainly movement of the cell
In the second set of photographs I showed DNA and the formation of mRNA from that DNA and also the four phases of mitosis; prophase, where the duplicated chromosomes are visible and the nucleus has disappeared. Metaphase, when the spindle fibers attach to the chromatids. Anaphase, where the chromatids part and become daughter chromosomes the cleavage furrow begins to appear. Finally telophase, where the daughter cells are forming individually and the cleavage furrow is more visible.
In this lab it becomes more clear how complex a cell is and how incredible the process of cell division is. I feel that I have learned the basic structure of a cell and have begun on a journey towards an understanding in the complexity of cells and cell division.

Lab 2 Dragons and Flies

2008-06-12T16:46:00.000-07:00

Lab 2
This lab synopsis will cover some components of genetic inheritance, such as genotypes and phenotypes, alleles, and dominant or recessive traits. I will also briefly discuss the importance of genetic inheritance on human history.
First off it is important that we define some key terms regarding genetic inheritance;
1. Genotype Refers to what genes belong to what traits. Letters are often assigned to specific genes. Genotypes were seen clearly in the dragon lab where certain letters designated whether the dragon had wings, horns, legs or even what color it was!
2. Phenotype The phenotype is the outward appearance of the genotype. Such as what color eyes someone has, or a widow’s peak or their finger length is even a phenotype. Phenotypes were seen in both labs but in the fly lab was a bit more realistic, the phenotypes were long wings or vestigial wings.
3. Allele Alleles are alternative forms of a gene located in the same position on a chromosome, typically depicted by letters of the alphabet. This was shown in the fly lab where the wing type was depicted by the letters L and l.
4. Cross crossing over is the process in which two non-sister chromatids break off a piece and those pieces reconnect with the other. Crossing over means that the offspring will receive a different set of specific genetic instructions than the mother and father did. I have a real life example of this, my mother and father both have brown hair and brown eyes, they have four children, three of us have brown hair and brown eyes and my brother came out with platinum blonde hair and blue eyes! My mom tried to take him back to the hospital because she really thought he was not oursJ the doctor discovered that both my parents fathers have blonde hair and light colored eyes so both my parents carry the heterozygous genotype for blonde hair and light eyes.
Crosses are also what is depicted in the punnett square.
5. Dominant Dominant traits in alleles will express themselves over recessive traits. In the dragon lab this was shown when changing the traits such as the horns, if there was one H it dominated the h and made the dragon have horns.
6. Recessive Recessive alleles will only express its phenotypic result in the homozygote. This was depicted in the fly lab with the homozygous vestigial winged fly.

These two labs gave a fun way of seeing the effects of genetic inheritance in our lives. Our parents each give us their genes and our phenotypes depend on whether they have homozygous dominant genotypes meaning they possess two identical alleles, homozygous recessive meaning they possess two recessive alleles or heterozygous meaning they have one dominant and one recessive allele. Receiving these genes affects us in ways that we are aware of, such as eye color, widow’s peak, height and even our earlobes. They also have to do with genetic disorders in humans. It is very important for all of us to know our genetic history so that we can be aware of any genetic disorders in our lineage so that we can better plan for the future.

This is the final image of the fly lab in which two heterozygus fly genotypes were put into a punnett's square.

This was the final image I got after making the two dragons have the same phenotype.
I feel that this lab was very useful in addition to chapter 20 in our books in teaching us how genotypes affect Phenotypes.

microscope lab

2008-06-08T14:10:00.000-07:00

In this lab review I will be covering the history of the microscope, the parts of a microscope and how they work together to achieve a clear image of cells, the importance of the microscope in our world today and pictures of cells viewed through a microscope.
The history of the microscope dates back to 1595 when Zacharias Janssen or possibly his father created the first microscope using simply two tubes and lenses at the end of those tubes. Around 1660 Robert Hooke improved on the structure of a microscope and was also the man who named the cell after discovering it in plant bark. Later on Anton van Leeuweenhoek built a more sophisticated version of the microscope due to which he was partially responsible for the theory of blood circulation being proven. The microscope has played an important role in history and continues to do so today. Due to the use of the microscope biologists and chemists are able to view cells in a high resolution in order to see how they are structured, how they behave and react. This in turn helps us discover bacteria, illnesses and mutated cells and formulate medications to respond. This is a picture of a microscope similar to the one used in the simulator.

The parts of the microscope beginning from the top and moving clockwise around are the eyepiece which is what you look in to see the specimen. Next are the objective lenses which are low, medium, high and oil emersion. The stage is where you place the specimen and secure it into place. The iris diaphragm controls the angle and amount of light that goes to the specimen. The illuminator is what provides the light source. Fine focus can be used to make small adjustments to the sharpness of the image. The coarse focus moves the stage up and down. And finally the arm connects the stage to the lenses.
My first step in the microscope simulator was to turn the microscope on. From there I chose the slide I wanted to view which was the cheek cell. I then put the 4x lens in place and moved the specimen into the viewer. Adjusting the oculars was the next step right before adjusting the coarse focus. I opened the iris to give the specimen more light and from there was able to adjust the fine focus and see the specimen. I then was able to toggle between the views to go to a higher resolution and then fine focus and finally ending up with the image you see here. In this image you can see the nucleus clearly and also some parts of the plasma membrane are visible. In the second image are what are called rod cells located in the retina. I found this very interesting because it shows just how incredibly diverse cells can be. These particular cells are responsive to light which I'm sure makes them incredibly interesting to view through a microscope!
In conclusion I can say that watching the video on how to use a microscope, participating in the microscope simulation and researching all the components of the microscope have given me a base knowledge on how to use on in a lab, and I would feel comfortable doing so.

I used images from google image search.

Compendium 1

2008-06-08T12:21:00.000-07:00

In this review I will be covering the wide topic of cells. I will briefly touch on the topics of the Basic Characteristics of Life, how being alive means being composed of cells working together in mass units. Cells being comprised of many atoms are joined together to form molecules, which is another topic I will discuss in greater detail. I will also be reviewing the many different structures and functions of human cells including their size and components/organelles and the cells diverse functions in the body. Lastly I will review different tissue types, their make-up and functions in and on the body.
1. The seven basic characteristics of life are functions that all living things do or have the ability to do. The first is that we are organized in an intricate way, from the tiniest atom in our body all the way to the biosphere we are a part of. We all rely on the environment around us to provide necessary products for life. Basically in order to continue living, plants animals and humans must acquire food from elsewhere to provide energy and nutrients to stay healthy. Reproduction is another basic characteristic of life. Plants reproduce offspring similar to themselves by pollination. Mammals reproduce by fertilization. We all grow and develop from the time of conception to the time of death. This includes all the growth that occurs from the time of conception and also healing after damage has occurred to the body. We are all homeostatic meaning that our beings regulate our internal operations to adapt to the environment around us. All living things require certain internal operations to support their way of life. Being homeostatic means all systems of a life form working together to maintain homeostasis. We also react to stimuli, meaning that when external stimuli occur, internal systems kick in to react to those stimuli in an appropriate manner. And finally we have adapted to life as we know it. These characteristics define what being alive is.
2. Molecules are formed by atoms joining together to perform a specific function. Atoms can join together with atoms of the same type and also atoms of a different type. An ionic reaction occurs when two atoms with differing amounts of electrons combine, and one atom will give one or more electron to the other atom to achieve the desired outcome of 8 electrons in each atoms outer shell. This is seen in the bonding of the oppositely charged atoms sodium and chloride bonding together to make table salt. Covalent bonding in atoms occurs when the atoms share electrons.
Figure 1
Two examples of chemical bonds

Figure 1
Two examples of chemical bonds.

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://media.wiley.com/Lux/30/21730.nfg001.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/CliffsReviewTopic/Atoms-Molecules-Ions-and-Bonds.topicArticleId-22032,articleId-21878.html&h=227&w=421&sz=29&hl=en&start=102&tbnid=424GrG6dqhUgSM:&tbnh=67&tbnw=125&prev=/images%3Fq%3Datoms%2Bmolecules%26start%3D90%26gbv%3D2%26ndsp%3D18%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN

One atom, such as an oxygen atom, may be lacking two electrons to have a stable outer shell. Therefore two hydrogen atoms, each with their own electron in the outer shell, will bond with the oxygen atom to produce a water molecule. Water molecules are crucial to life in every aspect. Water makes up about 60-70% of body weight and water allows life to continue as we know it. There are 4 categories of what are called molecules of life, Proteins, Lipids, Carbohydrates and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates are classified in two groups simple and complex. Both groups function as energy in organisms. Simple carbohydrates contain a lower amount of carbon atoms and glucose is a hexose (6 sided or 6 carbon) sugar/ carbohydrate. Complex carbohydrates contain many glucose units. Lipids are fats and used for energy storage. They serve this purpose well because they can hold more energy than the typical molecules. Proteins serve many purposes in cells, and therefore in the human body, some of those functions are in the forming of hair, nails etc. also transportation in the body such as hemoglobin in the blood which serves to transport oxygen. And contraction in the muscles is due to proteins presence. Nucleic acids are the last category of the molecules of life. Two types of nucleic acids are DNA and RNA. DNA serves as a blueprint for amino acids and proteins, RNA is the transmitter of the blueprint instructions.
3. A cells structure and function in the human body varies in many ways from how small they are to how they are internally organized. Smaller cells are more effective in many ways because they produce less waste than a large cell and they require less energy for survival. There are two types of cells prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Human cells are eukaryotic, containing a nucleus. The nucleus is where genetic information in the form of DNA is stored. The outer layer of a cell is called the plasma membrane. The plasma membrane is selectively permeable; it regulates what enters and exits the cell by diffusion, osmosis and facilitated transport. Also in the cell are energy makers called mitochondria. Mitochondria translate glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate). The process for making ATP is called cellular respiration. In cellular respiration there are three main pathways; glycolysis which begins the breakdown of glucose, the citric acid cycle finishes breaking the glucose down, and the electron transport chain finishes the cycle producing 32 ATP per glucose molecule. Inside the cell there is a semi fluid product called the cytoplasm that keeps all the organelles in place.
4. In the human body there are 4 main types of tissues. “A tissue is composed of specialized cells of the same type that perform a common function in the body.” The 4 main types of cells in the body are connective tissue, muscular tissue, nervous tissue and epithelial tissue. Connective tissues have 4 sub groups; fibrous, which is found in the internal organs and epithelium. Supportive connective tissue is found in cartilage. Bone is the hardest of the connective tissues. And finally fluid connective tissue, which are our blood and lymph (fluid that contains white blood cells). The second type of tissue is muscular tissue, which is what moves out bodies inside and out. The sub groups of muscular tissue are skeletal muscle, which moves the bones. Smooth muscle, which is located internally and is an involuntary muscle. And cardiac muscle contracts the heart. The third tissue is nervous tissue which is comprised of neurons. Neurons form nerves that in turn form the nervous system. The fourth tissue is epithelial tissue covers surfaces (skin) and lines cavities (lungs, internal organs, throat, intestines and trachea). Two or more tissue types grouping together to achieve a common goal is what is known as an organ. Organ systems are different organs collectively performing a common task. The following is a chart of the human body’s organ systems.

ORGAN SYSTEMS
1. Integumentary
Body covering. Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands.Function: protect underlying tissues and regulate body temperature
2. Skeletal
Bones, ligaments, cartilageFunction: Support, movement, protection, and production of blood cells
3. Muscular
Muscles of the bodyFunction: Movement, maintenance of posture, production of body heat
4. Nervous
Brain, spinal cord, nerves through the bodyFunction: Communication throughout body, mental activities, maintaining homeostasis
5. Endocrine
Ductless glands = pituitary, adrenal, thyroid, parathyroid, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thymus, pineal glandsFunction: Secretion of hormones, communication between body parts
6. Digestive
Mouth, teeth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gall bladder, and many glands including the pancreasFunction: Breakdown of food substances into simpler forms that can be absorbed (digestion).
7. Circulatory
Heart, blood vessels, blood. Function: Transports materials throughout the body. *Lymphatic system usually included with the circulatory system
8. Urinary
Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethraFunction: Removes ("filters") wastes from the blood and helps maintain the body's water and electrolyte balance
9. Reproductive
Reproductive organs, primarily the ovaries (females) and testes (males)Function: Produce special reproductive cells for reproduction

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.biologycorner.com/anatomy/images/organ_systems_blanks.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.biologycorner.com/anatomy/chap1_notes.html&h=843&w=1100&sz=133&hl=en&start=7&um=1&tbnid=u3zwxXIFHfQlSM:&tbnh=115&tbnw=150&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dorgan%2Bsystems%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN
citations:
1. Mader, Sylvia S. Human Biology 10E. Janice Roerig-Blong 2008

Bio 156

2008-06-01T22:42:00.000-07:00

Hi all! My name is Lynn and I am taking this class to get started on the road to becoming an RN. I am very excited to be here but also very nervous since I have been out of school for almost five years! My favorite artist is Ansel Adams the Photographer. His photos are all landscape, and whenever I look at one I honestly feel like I am there in that place. I was actually born and raised in this town and I still love it and call it Prescott not Preskitt. I get teased for that sometimes but oh well! I am currently working as a teller manager at a bank in town so that takes up a lot of my time. I have high hopes for learning as much as I can about the human body and its inner workings. I will be especially interested to learn more about cancer cells and how and why they do what they do.