In this review I will be covering the following topics
1. The cardiovascular system including
a. Blood vessels
b. The heart
c. The features of the cardiovascular system
d. Cardiovascular disorders
2. Blood including
a. The transport of oxygen
b. Blood’s contribution to the body’s defense system
c. Blood clotting
3. The lymphatic system and our immunity including
a. Pathogens
b. Features of the lymphatic system
c. Nonspecific and specific defenses our bodies have against pathogens
d. Acquired immunity
4. AIDS
a. Origin of the HIV virus
b. Stages of the HIV infection
1. A. Two components make up the cardiovascular system, the heart, and the blood vessels. The blood vessels are what the blood in our bodies’ flows through. The circulation of blood has one main purpose, and that is to service the cells. Vessels can be compared to a city street system that blood moves along and at some stops it gives up wastes (kidneys) At one stop it receives oxygen needed for survival (lungs) at the intestines, blood receives nutrients it needs. There are three types of blood vessels in the body. Arteries are made up of three layers in order to support them because blood enters them under pressure. Arteries begin the path of blood through the body. Large arteries branch off into arterioles that are smaller versions of arteries. The arterioles branch off into capillaries. Capillary beds from an exchange route for blood from arterioles to venules, which are small veins that drain the blood from the capillaries and then group together to form a vein. In the veins blood moves back toward the heart. In many cases veins have valves which allow the blood to move toward the heart and prevent backward flow.
B. The heart is a muscular organ about the size of a fist with the other hand clasped around it. It is made up of two parts myocardium is the inner but major portion of the heart consisting mostly of cardiac muscle tissue. Surrounding the heart is the pericardium which is a thick sac that supports and protects the heart. Internally the heart has four chambers. The two upper chambers are the atria (left and right). And two lower chambers, ventricles (left and right). The valves of the heart keep the blood flowing in the correct direction. Blood travels through the body in the following manner: oxygen poor blood enters the right atrium; it then travels to the right ventricle where it is sent through the pulmonary semilunar valve directly into the pulmonary trunk. From the pulmonary trunk it is divided and travels through pulmonary veins to the lungs to be oxygenated. From there the oxygen rich blood enter four pulmonary veins that dispense blood into the left atrium. Then the blood is sent through an atrioventricular valve to the left ventricle where it is sent through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta and then the body. A heart beat is what is known as a cardiac cycle. The chambers of the heart contract and relax. The contraction is the working phase, called systole. The relaxation of the chambers is the resting phase, called diastole. The body has internal and external controls of the heartbeat. In the heart a unique cardiac muscle tissue consisting of both muscular and nervous tissue called nodal tissue makes up the sinoatrial and the atrioventrivular nodes. The SA node sends a signal to the heat to stimulate contraction, it is therefore known as the pacemaker. The external control is located in the medulla oblongata regulates the heartbeat sympathetically and parasympathetically.
1. The cardiovascular system including
a. Blood vessels
b. The heart
c. The features of the cardiovascular system
d. Cardiovascular disorders
2. Blood including
a. The transport of oxygen
b. Blood’s contribution to the body’s defense system
c. Blood clotting
3. The lymphatic system and our immunity including
a. Pathogens
b. Features of the lymphatic system
c. Nonspecific and specific defenses our bodies have against pathogens
d. Acquired immunity
4. AIDS
a. Origin of the HIV virus
b. Stages of the HIV infection
1. A. Two components make up the cardiovascular system, the heart, and the blood vessels. The blood vessels are what the blood in our bodies’ flows through. The circulation of blood has one main purpose, and that is to service the cells. Vessels can be compared to a city street system that blood moves along and at some stops it gives up wastes (kidneys) At one stop it receives oxygen needed for survival (lungs) at the intestines, blood receives nutrients it needs. There are three types of blood vessels in the body. Arteries are made up of three layers in order to support them because blood enters them under pressure. Arteries begin the path of blood through the body. Large arteries branch off into arterioles that are smaller versions of arteries. The arterioles branch off into capillaries. Capillary beds from an exchange route for blood from arterioles to venules, which are small veins that drain the blood from the capillaries and then group together to form a vein. In the veins blood moves back toward the heart. In many cases veins have valves which allow the blood to move toward the heart and prevent backward flow.
B. The heart is a muscular organ about the size of a fist with the other hand clasped around it. It is made up of two parts myocardium is the inner but major portion of the heart consisting mostly of cardiac muscle tissue. Surrounding the heart is the pericardium which is a thick sac that supports and protects the heart. Internally the heart has four chambers. The two upper chambers are the atria (left and right). And two lower chambers, ventricles (left and right). The valves of the heart keep the blood flowing in the correct direction. Blood travels through the body in the following manner: oxygen poor blood enters the right atrium; it then travels to the right ventricle where it is sent through the pulmonary semilunar valve directly into the pulmonary trunk. From the pulmonary trunk it is divided and travels through pulmonary veins to the lungs to be oxygenated. From there the oxygen rich blood enter four pulmonary veins that dispense blood into the left atrium. Then the blood is sent through an atrioventricular valve to the left ventricle where it is sent through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta and then the body. A heart beat is what is known as a cardiac cycle. The chambers of the heart contract and relax. The contraction is the working phase, called systole. The relaxation of the chambers is the resting phase, called diastole. The body has internal and external controls of the heartbeat. In the heart a unique cardiac muscle tissue consisting of both muscular and nervous tissue called nodal tissue makes up the sinoatrial and the atrioventrivular nodes. The SA node sends a signal to the heat to stimulate contraction, it is therefore known as the pacemaker. The external control is located in the medulla oblongata regulates the heartbeat sympathetically and parasympathetically.
homepages.wmich.edu/~p3morefi/heart.jpeg
C. The left ventricle and sends blood to the aorta. The pressure of the blood decreases as the blood moves through the arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins. The pressure of blood is lowest in the vena cava, and highest in the aorta. Homeostasis is dependent on the beating of the heart. The heart beat forces the blood to move throughout the body, and when the blood is moving in the body, it exchanges items with various tissues. The return of blood to the heart is reliant on the skeletal muscle pump, muscles contract and push blood toward the heart and valves prevent it from flowing backwards. The respiratory pump which is the expansion of the chest upon inhalation which stimulates blood movement. There are two pathways of the cardiovascular system. The pulmonary circuit circulates blood through the lungs where it releases carbon dioxide and receives oxygen. The systematic circuit serves the needs of all the body’s other tissues. The pathway of blood in the systematic circuit always begins with the left ventricle moving into the aorta. The heart is nourished by the coronary arteries, not by the blood that flows through it. A system that moves blood from capillary bed to capillary bed is called a portal system and will always lie between capillary beds.
D. Cardiovascular disorders can lead to strokes and sometimes aneurysms. One type of cardiovascular disorder is hypertension which is the blood moving through the arteries at a higher pressure than normal. Simply put it is high blood pressure and it can lead to heart attack, stroke and kidney failure. To lower the risk of hypertension it is a good idea to eat a diet low in fat and cholesterol. Heart failure is another cardiovascular disorder when the heart does not pump blood as it should. Medical technology has allowed many people to live after surviving a heart attack but this leads to heart failure in many cases because the heart is damaged.
2. A. The blood in our bodies serves many purposes; it delivers nutrients from the digestive tract and oxygen form the lungs to other tissues throughout the body. It then exchanges them with carbon dioxide and waste. Some organs give the blood hormones that signal cellular metabolism. Our bodies blood also protects us against the invasion of pathogens. Some blood cells are able to phagocytize pathogens essentially destroying them. Other cells produce antibodies to destroy pathogens. Blood also has the capability to clot when needed in order to prevent blood loss in event of an injury. Blood is a tissue and therefore is made up of cells and cell fragments both of these collectively called the formed elements are suspended in plasma and thereby classified as a liquid tissue. A main component in blood is the red blood cells. Red blood cells replace a nucleus with hemoglobin. The heme part of the hemoglobin takes up oxygen in the lungs and lets it go in the tissues. Red blood cells have the main function of transporting oxygen throughout the body. When oxygen binds to the hemoglobin it takes on a different more full shape and is known as deoxyhemoglobin and when it releases the oxygen it is known as deoxyhemoglobin. The method in which red blood cells transport the oxygen is as follows, blood picks up the carbon dioxide from the tissues and a small amount (about 7%) dissolves in the plasma. Hemoglobin transports about 25% of the carbon dioxide and the rest is transported in the plasma. When the blood arrives at the lungs, the carbon dioxide is released entirely. Red blood cells are produced in the bone marrow and because red blood cells only live about 120 days, bone marrow must keep up with the need for red blood cells. If an inadequate amount of oxygen is being transported to the cells, the kidneys release a hormone to stimulate for the production of more red blood cells.
B. Blood has an important role involving immunity. White blood cells are produced in the bone marrow deriving from stem cells. The colony-stimulating factor (CSF) stimulates the production of white blood cells which are classified into two groups, granular leukocytes and agranular leukocytes. Granular leukocytes include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. The majority of the granular leukocytes are neutrophils which typically the first white blood cells to respond to a bacteria. The death of neutrophils in large numbers can result in pus. The function of the eosinophils has not been discovered, but it seems clear that the number of them increases with a parasitic worm infection and in allergic reactions. Basophils have a dark blue color and function in the connective tissues releasing histamine in the event of an allergic reaction. Agranular leukocytes are classified into lymphocytes which are the second most abundant type of white blood cells and are responsible in targeting specific pathogens and their toxins. There are two types of leukocytes b-cells which produce antibodies and t-cells directly destroy the pathogens. Monocytes are the largest of the white blood cells, live in the tissues and phagocytize pathogens, waste and old cells.
C. Fragments of large cells form what is known as platelets that assist in the blood clotting process. When a blood vessel is punctured platelets gather to form a stopper in the wound. The platelets then release an activator that begins a series of reactions. This reaction forms fibrin which trap red blood cells.
D. Cardiovascular disorders can lead to strokes and sometimes aneurysms. One type of cardiovascular disorder is hypertension which is the blood moving through the arteries at a higher pressure than normal. Simply put it is high blood pressure and it can lead to heart attack, stroke and kidney failure. To lower the risk of hypertension it is a good idea to eat a diet low in fat and cholesterol. Heart failure is another cardiovascular disorder when the heart does not pump blood as it should. Medical technology has allowed many people to live after surviving a heart attack but this leads to heart failure in many cases because the heart is damaged.
2. A. The blood in our bodies serves many purposes; it delivers nutrients from the digestive tract and oxygen form the lungs to other tissues throughout the body. It then exchanges them with carbon dioxide and waste. Some organs give the blood hormones that signal cellular metabolism. Our bodies blood also protects us against the invasion of pathogens. Some blood cells are able to phagocytize pathogens essentially destroying them. Other cells produce antibodies to destroy pathogens. Blood also has the capability to clot when needed in order to prevent blood loss in event of an injury. Blood is a tissue and therefore is made up of cells and cell fragments both of these collectively called the formed elements are suspended in plasma and thereby classified as a liquid tissue. A main component in blood is the red blood cells. Red blood cells replace a nucleus with hemoglobin. The heme part of the hemoglobin takes up oxygen in the lungs and lets it go in the tissues. Red blood cells have the main function of transporting oxygen throughout the body. When oxygen binds to the hemoglobin it takes on a different more full shape and is known as deoxyhemoglobin and when it releases the oxygen it is known as deoxyhemoglobin. The method in which red blood cells transport the oxygen is as follows, blood picks up the carbon dioxide from the tissues and a small amount (about 7%) dissolves in the plasma. Hemoglobin transports about 25% of the carbon dioxide and the rest is transported in the plasma. When the blood arrives at the lungs, the carbon dioxide is released entirely. Red blood cells are produced in the bone marrow and because red blood cells only live about 120 days, bone marrow must keep up with the need for red blood cells. If an inadequate amount of oxygen is being transported to the cells, the kidneys release a hormone to stimulate for the production of more red blood cells.
B. Blood has an important role involving immunity. White blood cells are produced in the bone marrow deriving from stem cells. The colony-stimulating factor (CSF) stimulates the production of white blood cells which are classified into two groups, granular leukocytes and agranular leukocytes. Granular leukocytes include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. The majority of the granular leukocytes are neutrophils which typically the first white blood cells to respond to a bacteria. The death of neutrophils in large numbers can result in pus. The function of the eosinophils has not been discovered, but it seems clear that the number of them increases with a parasitic worm infection and in allergic reactions. Basophils have a dark blue color and function in the connective tissues releasing histamine in the event of an allergic reaction. Agranular leukocytes are classified into lymphocytes which are the second most abundant type of white blood cells and are responsible in targeting specific pathogens and their toxins. There are two types of leukocytes b-cells which produce antibodies and t-cells directly destroy the pathogens. Monocytes are the largest of the white blood cells, live in the tissues and phagocytize pathogens, waste and old cells.
C. Fragments of large cells form what is known as platelets that assist in the blood clotting process. When a blood vessel is punctured platelets gather to form a stopper in the wound. The platelets then release an activator that begins a series of reactions. This reaction forms fibrin which trap red blood cells.
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After repair of the vessel plasmin is released that destroys the fibrin and the liquid texture of plasma is restored. Some people have an insufficient number of platelets which can cause bruising, nosebleeds, bleeding in the mouth and rash. This condition is called thrombocytopenia. A thrombus is a lodged blood clot formation due to plaque in the blood. When the clot dislodges and moves it is known as a thromboembolism which can cause a heart attack. A lack of the clotting factor in the blood is known as hemophilia which can lead to major internal bleeding with the slightest bump.
3. A. Bacteria are widespread in our environment, they cover almost everything we encounter and in many situations they are vital to our survival. However, bacteria and viruses also known as pathogens cause many human infectious diseases. The human body has three ways of defending itself against these pathogens 1. Skin and mucous membranes create barriers to entry. 2. When an invasion does occur white blood cells send out first responders to attack the pathogens. 3. When a specific force is necessary the body sends special defense to target the pathogen and kill it. Bacteria are single celled prokaryotic cells that lack a nucleus. The most frequent shapes are bacillus bacteria which have a rod shape. Coccus has a spherical shape and spirillum have a curved shape to them. Binary fission is the method by which bacteria reproduce. It is an extremely rapid reproduction process due to the lack of a nucleus and bacteria can literally double in number in as little as 12 minutes. Bacteria cause strep throat, tuberculosis, botulism, food poisoning, gonorrhea, and syphilis. Viruses are extremely troublesome because they can stay alive outside of a host, but they thrive inside a host. Viruses cause diseases such as colds, flu, chicken pox, AIDS, genital warts and genital herpes. Viruses are much smaller than bacteria and yet they carry the genetic material to reproduce which, surprisingly, is not necessarily DNA, it can be simply RNA. Viruses gain entry to a cell and take it over. Degenerative diseases of the nervous system are caused by prions which have a protein base. One of these diseases is mad cow disease which changes the shape of proteins in the brain.
B. the lymphatic system works in conjunction with the cardiovascular system and has four main functions. 1. Capillaries absorb excess tissue fluid and return it to the bloodstream. 2. In the small intestines, capillaries absorb fats and transport them to the bloodstream. 3. The lymphatic system produces, maintains, and distributes lymphocytes. 4. The lymphatic system also helps protect the body from pathogens. The lymphatic system is made up of lymphatic vessels that create a one way system of capillaries, vessels and ducts. There are two ducts in the lymphatic system the thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct. Also included in the lymphatic system are the lymphatic organs which are the primary red bone marrow and thymus gland and the secondary the lymph nodes and spleen. Red bone marrow produces blood cells. The thymus is bi-functional; it produces hormones that aid in the maturation of t-lymphocytes. The thymus also houses t-lymphocytes while they mature.
C. The human body has many different defenses to pathogens. Nonspecific defenses are barriers to entry which include mucus and skin, chemical barriers (secretion of bacteria containing oils), and resident bacteria in the mouth, intestines, and other areas of the body. Another nonspecific defense is the inflammatory response which is the second line of defense against pathogens. There are four signs that indicate inflammatory response: redness, heat, swelling, and pain. Specific defenses are the body’s response to antigens (foreign molecules). The specific defense relies on the action of b cells and t cells which search out specific antigens and respond to them appropriately. B cells have receptors on them that bind with a specific antigen and then produces clones of itself. Some of these copies make memory cells through which long term immunity is possible. After the infection passes the cells die off. T cells also have receptors on them but in order to recognize antigens t cells must have them presented by an antigen-presenting cell. The antigen presenting cell breaks apart the pathogen and presents it to an MHC protein or HLA. This process makes it possible for t cells to recognize and destroy specific antigens but leave other normal cells unaffected.
D. advances in medicine have allowed us to create immunity, which is known as acquired immunity. Acquired immunity is of two types active and passive. Active immunity is typically injected into the body in the form of vaccines. Active immunity is injected into a person when the person is well to prevent a future disease. Passive immunity is when a person is given antibodies that have been prepared to help them combat a disease. Passive immunity is typically given when a person has been accidentally exposed to an infectious disease.
4. A. It is believed that the beginning of HIV was around the late 1950’s in Africa and spread to the United States soon after that. The virus has been found in the green monkey of West Africa as well as chimpanzees of West-Central Africa. It is a possibility that the virus spread to humans who consumed the meat of these animals. It is possible that AIDS came to the US as early as the 1950’s, but the first case that was documented was that of a young boy who died in 1969 with skin lesions that are now known to be a type of AIDS cancer. AIDS was misdiagnosed as leukemia in the 1960’s as a cause of death but it seems now that many of those cases were because of AIDS. The naming of AIDS was in 1982 and it took about ten years after that to discover that HIV was the cause of AIDS. AIDS is seen in every country throughout the world, but is most common in Africa. In Africa about 20 % of the adult population is affected. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the main cause of death in those ages 15-44 is AIDS. It is estimated that in 2007 33.2 million people were living with the HIV/AIDS virus and 2.1 million people died from the virus. AIDS is now known as a worldwide epidemic, and its numbers are rising every day.
B. HIV occurs in three stages Acute Phase, Chronic Phase and AIDS. In the acute phase of HIV infection the helper T-cells in the body have been infected by the virus and are now called CD4 cells. A person in this stage of the virus is sometimes non-symptomatic but is highly infectious. The immune system in an acute phase person will still function relatively normally. Some people in this stage of infection will have flu like symptoms, but may otherwise be symptom free for years. In the chronic phase of disease the CD4 cell count is dramatically lower and the person will begin showing signs of a weakened immune system, yeast infections of the mouth or vagina, diarrhea, sores, shingles, fever and more. The final phase is being diagnosed with AIDS. CD4 t cell count falls below 200 cells per mm3 or the person has been diagnosed win one or more of the following AIDS defining illnesses; pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia, mycobacterium tuberculosis, toxoplasmic encephalitis, Kaposi’s sarcoma or invasive cervical cancer. Once any of these diseases occurs in an AIDS patient, death is soon to follow.
www.stanford.edu/.../2005gongishmail/hiv2.jpg
3. A. Bacteria are widespread in our environment, they cover almost everything we encounter and in many situations they are vital to our survival. However, bacteria and viruses also known as pathogens cause many human infectious diseases. The human body has three ways of defending itself against these pathogens 1. Skin and mucous membranes create barriers to entry. 2. When an invasion does occur white blood cells send out first responders to attack the pathogens. 3. When a specific force is necessary the body sends special defense to target the pathogen and kill it. Bacteria are single celled prokaryotic cells that lack a nucleus. The most frequent shapes are bacillus bacteria which have a rod shape. Coccus has a spherical shape and spirillum have a curved shape to them. Binary fission is the method by which bacteria reproduce. It is an extremely rapid reproduction process due to the lack of a nucleus and bacteria can literally double in number in as little as 12 minutes. Bacteria cause strep throat, tuberculosis, botulism, food poisoning, gonorrhea, and syphilis. Viruses are extremely troublesome because they can stay alive outside of a host, but they thrive inside a host. Viruses cause diseases such as colds, flu, chicken pox, AIDS, genital warts and genital herpes. Viruses are much smaller than bacteria and yet they carry the genetic material to reproduce which, surprisingly, is not necessarily DNA, it can be simply RNA. Viruses gain entry to a cell and take it over. Degenerative diseases of the nervous system are caused by prions which have a protein base. One of these diseases is mad cow disease which changes the shape of proteins in the brain.
B. the lymphatic system works in conjunction with the cardiovascular system and has four main functions. 1. Capillaries absorb excess tissue fluid and return it to the bloodstream. 2. In the small intestines, capillaries absorb fats and transport them to the bloodstream. 3. The lymphatic system produces, maintains, and distributes lymphocytes. 4. The lymphatic system also helps protect the body from pathogens. The lymphatic system is made up of lymphatic vessels that create a one way system of capillaries, vessels and ducts. There are two ducts in the lymphatic system the thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct. Also included in the lymphatic system are the lymphatic organs which are the primary red bone marrow and thymus gland and the secondary the lymph nodes and spleen. Red bone marrow produces blood cells. The thymus is bi-functional; it produces hormones that aid in the maturation of t-lymphocytes. The thymus also houses t-lymphocytes while they mature.
C. The human body has many different defenses to pathogens. Nonspecific defenses are barriers to entry which include mucus and skin, chemical barriers (secretion of bacteria containing oils), and resident bacteria in the mouth, intestines, and other areas of the body. Another nonspecific defense is the inflammatory response which is the second line of defense against pathogens. There are four signs that indicate inflammatory response: redness, heat, swelling, and pain. Specific defenses are the body’s response to antigens (foreign molecules). The specific defense relies on the action of b cells and t cells which search out specific antigens and respond to them appropriately. B cells have receptors on them that bind with a specific antigen and then produces clones of itself. Some of these copies make memory cells through which long term immunity is possible. After the infection passes the cells die off. T cells also have receptors on them but in order to recognize antigens t cells must have them presented by an antigen-presenting cell. The antigen presenting cell breaks apart the pathogen and presents it to an MHC protein or HLA. This process makes it possible for t cells to recognize and destroy specific antigens but leave other normal cells unaffected.
D. advances in medicine have allowed us to create immunity, which is known as acquired immunity. Acquired immunity is of two types active and passive. Active immunity is typically injected into the body in the form of vaccines. Active immunity is injected into a person when the person is well to prevent a future disease. Passive immunity is when a person is given antibodies that have been prepared to help them combat a disease. Passive immunity is typically given when a person has been accidentally exposed to an infectious disease.
4. A. It is believed that the beginning of HIV was around the late 1950’s in Africa and spread to the United States soon after that. The virus has been found in the green monkey of West Africa as well as chimpanzees of West-Central Africa. It is a possibility that the virus spread to humans who consumed the meat of these animals. It is possible that AIDS came to the US as early as the 1950’s, but the first case that was documented was that of a young boy who died in 1969 with skin lesions that are now known to be a type of AIDS cancer. AIDS was misdiagnosed as leukemia in the 1960’s as a cause of death but it seems now that many of those cases were because of AIDS. The naming of AIDS was in 1982 and it took about ten years after that to discover that HIV was the cause of AIDS. AIDS is seen in every country throughout the world, but is most common in Africa. In Africa about 20 % of the adult population is affected. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the main cause of death in those ages 15-44 is AIDS. It is estimated that in 2007 33.2 million people were living with the HIV/AIDS virus and 2.1 million people died from the virus. AIDS is now known as a worldwide epidemic, and its numbers are rising every day.
B. HIV occurs in three stages Acute Phase, Chronic Phase and AIDS. In the acute phase of HIV infection the helper T-cells in the body have been infected by the virus and are now called CD4 cells. A person in this stage of the virus is sometimes non-symptomatic but is highly infectious. The immune system in an acute phase person will still function relatively normally. Some people in this stage of infection will have flu like symptoms, but may otherwise be symptom free for years. In the chronic phase of disease the CD4 cell count is dramatically lower and the person will begin showing signs of a weakened immune system, yeast infections of the mouth or vagina, diarrhea, sores, shingles, fever and more. The final phase is being diagnosed with AIDS. CD4 t cell count falls below 200 cells per mm3 or the person has been diagnosed win one or more of the following AIDS defining illnesses; pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia, mycobacterium tuberculosis, toxoplasmic encephalitis, Kaposi’s sarcoma or invasive cervical cancer. Once any of these diseases occurs in an AIDS patient, death is soon to follow.
www.stanford.edu/.../2005gongishmail/hiv2.jpg
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